Book Questions:
What were the most critical factors enabling the Americans to win the War of Independence with Britain?
What changes did the Revolution promote in relationships among Americans of different classes, races, and genders?
In what ways did the first state constitutions and the Articles of Confederation reflect older pre-Revolutionary ideas about political power and authority? In What ways did they depart from older ideas?
The Prospects of War
Continental Army led by George Washington
Loyalists and Other British Sympathizers
Most colonists hoped that independence from British wouldn’t be necessary – opposition to rebellion
Enemies of Revolution = loyalists; Tories
Supporters of Revolution = Whigs
Loyalists
Opposed Parliament’s claim to taxing colonies
Disagreed with patriots’ insistence that only independence could preserve colonists’ constitutional rights
Denounced separation as an illegal act that will lead to unnecessary war
Retained profound reverence for crown
Each side saw their own cause as sacred that opposition was seen as betrayal
Important factors in determining loyalist strength
1) Degree to which local Whigs exerted political authority and successfully convinced neighbors that king and Parliament threatened liberty
New England town leaders, Virginia gentry, and rice planters of South Carolina pursued program of political education and popular mobilization
Explained issues at meetings
Elites persuaded majority to favor resistance
Loyalist population decreased
Communities remained divided when fighting began
2) Geographic distribution of recent British immigrants, who remained closely connected with homeland
After war, foreign-born loyalist population increased
Quebec Act of 1774 (after British conquered New France)
Guaranteed Canadians religious freedom and continued partial use of French civil law
Continental forces invaded Quebec – found widespread support among French and English Canadians
Canadians wanted American victory
North Americans supported British cause because they thought that independent American would pose greater threat to their own liberty and independence
British got support from British nonwhites
African Americans
Considered own liberation from slavery a higher priority
Some slaves escaped and joined Royal Army
Escaped to British protection
Most African-Americans in northern colonies believed supporting revolution would hasten own liberation
NAs
Most supported British
Recognized danger to homelands by expansion of Anglo-Americans
Six Nations Iroquois and Creek confederacies were divided (were unified until French defeat)
Creeks’ allegiances leaned toward colonists’ cause
Six Nations – unity died out à supported Britain
The Opposing Sides
Britain had two major advantages in war
1) 11 million inhabitants of British Isles outnumbered 2.5 million colonists, a fraction of whom were slaves or loyalists
2) Britain possessed world’s largest navy and one of best professional armies
Royal military establishment grew during war
Needed more manpower so hired others (Germans, loyalists, etc.)
Problems in Britain
Colonists were able to mobilize manpower as well
Americans served short terms
France and Spain helped in war’s later stages
Britain’s ability to crush rebellion was weakened by decline in navy – budget cuts
Many ships needed major repairs
Marine also suffered due to American raids
Hurt effort to supply British troops in America
Navy didn’t really accomplish much
British leaders faced problems maintaining people’s support
War added onto national debt – increased taxes
Problems in American colonies
Military challenge – lacked training to fight battles against professional armies
Could not rely entirely on guerrilla tactics
Avoided major battles
Allowed British to occupy all major population centers
Reliance on guerrilla tactics à evidence that Americans couldn’t fight British army à couldn’t get foreign loans, diplomatic recognition, and military allies
Continental Congress had to fight European style
Mass formations
Rapid maneuvers to crush undefended enemies
Close-range battle skill
Discipline, training, nerve
Britain had well-trained army with discipline and bravery under fire
Continental Army didn’t have much experience
Americans suffered succession of defeats
But only had to prolong rebellion until British taxpayers lost patience with struggle
George Washington
Spoke with authority and dignity
Powerfully built, athletic, hardened by outdoor life
His presence inspired troops to heroism
Took command of Virginia regiment raised to resist French claims
Discovered dangers of overconfidence and need for determination in face of defeat
Resigned commission and became tobacco planter
Sat in Virginia House of Burgesses – influence grew there because others respected him and sought his opinion
Sat in Continental Congress
War and Peace, 1776-1783
American forces won over British
Gain control of trans-Appalachian West
War was decided in South when American and French forces won victory at Yorktown, Virginia in 1781
Revolutionary War
Civil war and international war
Civil
3 divisions
Loyalists
Patriots
People who were undecided
Indifferent
Merit to both sides
Not informed
Opportunism- something to gain on both sides
Go with whoever will win
Some people don’t know, some people hugely dedicated to one side or another
40 + % patriots
20% loyalists
30-40% undecided
Why aren’t colonies losing
Home field advantage
Going against trained British army
Aren’t very good
Colonial organization doesn’t exist
Small continental army
People can go home whenever they want
Greater commitment on American side
British army- fighting to get home
Militias have more to lose than the British
Military strategy
British trying to tame a foreign insurgency
Britain having trouble maintaining lengthy struggle
After a certain point guerilla warfare doesn’t work
Important Battles
Battle of Sartoga
Gives revolutionaries control of the Hudson
French join on American side
Saratoga convinces them that they can win the war
See that America can win
Winable proposition
Hate British and want back land that Britain took from them
Lower Canada
French have recognized America as a real country
Spain joins in as an ally of France; Netherlands; try to get Russia too
Armed neutrality= not fighting but ready to come to the defense of an american, for example, if needed
Diplomats are getting sent to other countries to try and get allies
John Quincy Adams was secretary to the ambassador to Russia
After Saratoga, British public opinion is that America should be let go
Wilkes, Burkeà people had been advocating American independence for a while
Battle of Yorktown
Cornwallis surrenders
Both are surrenders of a major British force
When surrender, troops are taken prisoners or disarmed
Both were unexpected
American strategy got lucky
Washington wanted to change from fronteir fighting to European style battles
Convinced that guerilla war won’t work
At Saratoga, elements of European strategy come through and they win
Won by Horatio Gates
At Yorktown, European strategy + French allies give them a win
Americans win because British actually fighting don’t care
Only people who care are in cabinet
More people die on 9/11 than on the American side of the Revolution
George Washington answers to Continental Congress
Some people wanted to make him king
He resigns after 1783 to prevent this
Shifting Fortunes in the North, 1776-1778
Henry Knox brought artillery to Boston to help American effort there, led by George Washington à made British evacuate Boston and onto New York
Washington only had a couple thousand poorly-trained troops there while General William How and Admiral Richard Lord Howe led battalions of royal troops
Howe’s men defeated large portion of Washington’s troops and made survivors retreat to Pennsylvania
Washington led troops back into New Jersey and attacked stationed troops in Trenton – captured many, lost VERY few
Then attacked British at Princeton and killed/took captive a fraction of them – very few casualties
Princeton and Trenton consequences:
When defeat seemed inevitable, boosted civilian and military morale
Divided loyalists and British army
Forced British to remove all New Jersey garrisons to New York
Many loyalists swore allegiance to Continental Army
Marquis de Lafayette (French) joined Washington’s staff
Highly idealistic, brave, optimistic
His presence indicated that Louis XVI (king) might recognize American independence and declare war on Britain
Louis wanted proof that Americans could win
British planned two-pronged assault in New York to isolate New England
Force (including NAs) invaded New York from Montreal
General John Burgoyne simultaneously leads British force from Quebec through New York – was defeated at St. Leger
Recaptured Fort Ticonderoga
Ran short of supplies while General Horatio Gates (American) gathered troops for an attack à inflicted damage on Burgoyne
Battle at Saratoga à Burgoyne surrendered – surrounded
War’s turning point
Victory convinced France that Americans could win the war
France formally recognized U.S.
Went to war with Britain
Spain later declared war on Britain as ally of France, not of U.S.
Dutch Republic joined later as well
Britain had no allies
Howe landed troops near Philadelphia
American troops soon occupied the city
Burgoyne vs. Washington / Lafayette
Continental units crumbled under British
Congress fled Philadelphia – allowed Howe to occupy city
Howe defeated Washington
Continentals hid in Valley Forge – supplies running low
Army slowly regained strength but not training
Couldn’t mobilize quickly in organized units; couldn’t use bayonets efficiently enough
Continental Army got boost – German soldier Friedrich von Steuben arrived at Valley Forge
Talent for motivating men
Possessed administrative genius
Battle of Monmouth
General Henry Clinton (British commander-in-chief) evacuated Philadelphia and marched to New York
Continental Army caught up with Clinton in New Jersey
Clinton’s army slipped away
Ended contest for North
Clinton occupied New York – Royal Navy made safe from attack
Washington kept army nearby
Whig militia hunted down few Tory guerrillas and destroyed loyalism
The War in the West, 1776-1782
War fought west of the appalachian mountains has smaller intense battles
Long lasting hate between expansionist settlers and Native Americans
War is kind of a continuation of deep-seated tensions
Fighting begins when Cherokees attack whites in southern colonies
Colonies suffer heavy losses
Regain strengthà retaliate
Burn most cherokee towns
Treaties make w/ Cherokees
Cherokees have to give most of their land to North/South Carolina and Tennessee
In Northwest there is fighting
Indecisive battles between Ohio Indians and Americans
Battles
Colonel George Rogers Clark
Captures French community of Vincennes on Wabash river
British can’t offer assistance to Indian allies
John Bowman destroys most Shawnee villages
Danial Brodhead damages Delawares and Seneca Iroquois
Joseph Brant is pro-British Iroquois
Devastates Pennsylvania and NY fronteirs
John Sullivan retaliates
In one battle he kills a lot of Brant’s warriors
Burns 24 villages
Destroys a million bushels of corn
Many indians flee w/o food to canadaà starvation
Brant attacks New York
But, Sullivan’s campaign had inflicted too much damage
Harsh wintersà many die
Fighting in west continues until 1782
American Victory in the South, 1778-1781
Britain now has to fight an international war
Spain and France have joined
If colonies can hold out long enough, British supplies and manpower will snap
Spain forces Britain out of West Floridaà Britain can’t take Mississippi Valley
Britain has to send troops back home to protect from French invasion
Less to fight in America
Combined French and Spanish navies= size of British navy
Several large battles
Deny Britain control of sea
Break Royal Navy’s blockade
Britain plans to invade south
If have south ports, can move between West Indies and south easily
Want to tap into loyalist support in the south
Just push up one colony at a time after that
General Henry Clinton in charge of British troops in south
British take Georgia and Charles Town after 2 year delay
Find fewer loyalists
During Cherokee attacks, loyalists joined rebel militia to defend homes
Slaves had fleed to British troops or to British Florida
Plantation owners angry
Think rejection of their authority will lead to slave uprisings
Even though they try to return the slaves, Britain doesn’t get as much support
Remaining loyalists and patriots retaliate against each other
Horatio Gates takes control of American forces in south
Small force
Defeated at Camden, South Carolina by Lord Charles Cornwallis
Worst rebel defeat of the war
Gates replaced by Nathanail Greene
Fights 3 major battles against Cornwallis—loses all
But, gives Whig militia protection, sapps Cornwallis’ strength w/ more than anticipated losses, stretches British supply lines until some snap
Cornwallis forced to leave Carolina and move to Virginia
Clinton wants Cornwallis to come back to fight in south
Cornwallis has other plans—sets up base at Yorktown, Virginia
French drop anchor off Virginia coast
Lafayette and some Continentals join French
Washington moves men south from NYà trap Corwallis
British greatly outnumbered
3 weeks of fighting before Cornwallis surrenders
Peace at Last, 1718-1783
Treaty of Paris in 1783
Transfers of territory
Loyalists have lost property
Slaves have been liberated—set free, stay free
State governments had confiscated estates
If loyalists not compensated, British refuse to leave certain forts in west
French want lots of landà don’t get it
Didn’t show up for the negotiations
Angry that americans and british had been doing secret land negotiations
Independence recognized
Cornwallis’s surrender drained will of England’s people to fight – forced government for peace negotiations à Peace of Paris
Main diplomats: John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, John Jay
Agreements
Britain recognized African independence
Evacuated all royal troops from America
Gave Confederation lands east of Mississippi
America goes from St. Lawrence river to Florida
Procalmation of 1763 doesn’t apply anymore
Americans control Northwest (Clark’s victories)
Spain and Britain avoided Southwest
Gave American fishing rights off of Grand Banks of Canada
There were still unresolved issues (i.e. boundaries, etc.)
Future disputes
Between Britain and America – wouldn’t keep their word on some issues
Between British and Spain
NAs were left out of treaty – they fought too
Left them to deal with Confederation on their own
Didn’t respect American claims over their territory
No one for Native Americans to look to for protection
Displacement of Indian tribes
War à heavy death toll; drove many into exile; many fled
War didn’t settle two issues:
What kind of society American was to become
What sort of government the new nation would possess
The Revolution and Social Change
New Country
New neighbors—Spain in Florida, Britain in Canada
Huge amounts of land
Pay off loyalist compensation
Social tensions revealed during 1765-1775 were magnified by
Principles from Declaration of Independence
Dislocations caused by war
Many changes in race, gender, and class relationships
Egalitarianism Among White Males
Social relations between elites and common pepole change
Before, wealthy lived expensive lifestyles to flaunt their wealth
In 1760’s they start dressing like common people to win political approval by boycotting of British goods
Militiamen don’t wear wealthy officers uniformsà wear inexpensive ones that everyone can afford
Anti-British movement convinces people to appear equal to commonpeople
During war, people have to serve in the army together
Wealthy have to serve as privates under common people
Officers show respect to their soldiers
Don’t degrade them
Especially the wealthy in low positions wouldn’t do orders if ordered around negatively
Officers go out of their way to show troops that they feel they are equal
When soldiers return from war, they still expect this kind of equal treatment from the upper classà democratizing of America’s political assumptions
Common people move up in rank above wealthy
Based on merit, not wealth
Common people given responsibilities they wouldn’t have ordinarily had
Find that merit not connoected to wealth
Some people don’t like this equalitiy
Thought that each class had particular virtues
Lower class was supposed to defer to the educated and wealthy upper class to do what was necessary in government
Natural Aristocracy
Those who demonstrated fitness for government service by personal accomplishments
Some self-made people could make their way into the natural aristocracy
Wealthy still elected to office, but not if they flaunt their money
Distribution of wealth in the colonies still unchanged though
A Revolution for Black Americans
Fight for slaves liberty parallels America’s fight for independence
Free blacks
Can’t vote
Curfews
Lack guarantees of social justice
During war some slaves run off and pose as free blacks
Many join the army
w/ master’s concession
as free men
before there were bans on blacks in the military but they collaped in late 1770s
Army needed people
Not a reflection on their ideas of black equality
Slavery considered part of natural order
Opposition to slavery increases
Begins in yearly meeting of New England Quakers in 1770
Quakers begin freeing their slaves
Independence’s assertion of natural rightsà more people oppose slavery
New England begins to ban slavery
NH only one not to but slaves are freed by masters anyway
Take steps to weaken slavery over time
Children born after a certain date wouldn’t be slaves
May still have to work for master for years w/o pay
Decisive action not pressed in the south
w/o slaves they have no workforce
Confederation might go bankrupt
South would secede
In the South some people are also troubled by slavery
All states except South Carolina and Georgia end slave imports
All but North Carolina pass laws making it easier for slaves to be set free (called manumit)
Free blacks still face trouble
Most purchased their freedom w/ savingsà don’t have much money
Past physical prime
Hard to find work or equal pay
Remain poor laborers, domestic servants, and tenant farmers
Some gain recognition
Benjamin Banneker of Maryland
Phillis Wheatley
Most states grant more rights to free blacks during and after Revolution
If meet property qualificationsà can vote
Stop enforcing curfews and laws restricting freedom of movemetn
Guarantee free blacks equal treatment in court hearings (in law)
White Women in Wartime
Native Americans and the Revolution
Articles of Confederation
First drafted during Yorktown
Needed a body to act as government and sign the treaty of paris
Drafting not that different from Second Continental Congress
Instead of being called Continental Congress, it’s just the Congress
Before, there were many different governments together acting as one
Is that a nation or not?
Many different currencies
Concensus about political ideals
No united economic policy
Each colony can make a tarriff if they want
Congress is running things
Wednesday, October 3, 2007
Chapter 5
Chapter Questions:
Boyer, pp. 109-114, 125-127. What overall effect did Britain's global commercial wars have on the development of the British American colonies? How was the French and Indian War especially significant?
Boyer, pp. 128-139. How did imperial reorganization and British colonial policy cause colonial resistance? What was the nature of the resistance?
Boyer, pp. 139-149. Why did resistance to British control intensify?
Boyer, pp. 149-155, 159-164, A1-A2 (appendix-The Declaration of Independence). To what extent was the United States a unified country in 1776? What were the justifications used for separation in 1776? DBQ Due.
Book Questions:
How and why did their joint triumph in the Seven Years’ War lead to a rupture between Britain and the American Colonies?
Why did differences between British officials and colonists over revenue-raising measures lead to a more fundamental conflict over political authority within the colonies?
How did the imperial crisis lead non-elite colonists to become politically active?
What were the major factors leading most colonists to abandon their loyalty to Britain and instead choose national independence?
French Indian War
Colonies linked together like Britain wanted
Concerns: raw materials, trade routes/ports, buffering against other territories
Population in colonies booming
Need a place to go
Want to go west
French there
French don’t want English movement into Ohio
Britain and France conflict over who owns the land
Benjamin Franklin sees war coming
He and Thomas Hutchinson propose Albany Plan of Union
Would benefit the British empire and colonies
English interest= Colony interest
Would allow them to collectively pool money
Washington convinces governor to let him go out to Ohio to get land
Embarrassedà sent back failed
General Braddock goes outà gets killed
Believed in fighting in European style
You have to fight differently in America
French Indian War is an extension of Seven Years’ War
Could be called a world war
Need a strategy to fight in many different places
British Prime minister= William Pitt
William Pitt gets success
Lets the colonists do the fighting
Better at fighting Indians than Europeans
British government promises to pay back colonial military expenses
British navy mobilizes the troops but British don’t do very much besides
Colonists are supposed to keep French from coming over the Appalachians
British make a strike at Quebec
British win
Treaty of Paris
French land given to Enland
Florida given to England
French only control louisiana
Spanish and French lands don’t have as many cities as Britain
Pitt is out of office 3 years before war ends (1763)
Change in monarch too year
George III
Choses new Prime minister
Nobody pays the colonies back for war
Start taxing colonies
Ignore pitt’s promises
The Triumph of the British Empire, 1750-176
In King George’s war
Austria moves alliance to France
Britain joins with Prussia
Seven Years’ War ensues
A Fragile Peace, 1750-1754
King George’s War didn’t establish a dominant power : France or Britain
Preparing for another war
Conflict most present in Ohio River Valley
Competed over by Virginai, Pennsylvania, France, the Six Nations Iroquois, and the Native Americans who actually lived there
To get rid of Virginia and Pennsylvania traders, French start making a chain of forts
Retaliation—colonies send 21 year old George Washington
Surveryor/speculator
Supposed to persuade or force French to leave
Fench drive him and his militiamen back home
Colonies try to get on Native American’s good side
Delegates from 7 colonies north of Virginia gather in Albany, New York
Give Iroquois lots of gifts to keep them temporarily neutral
Indians living in Ohio River Valley sided w/ French
Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Hutchinson (Mass.) suggest Albany Plan of Union
Grand Council would represent all colonial assemblies
Work out problems in military defense and Indian affairs
Could demand funds from colonies
Doesn’t get made b/c colonies won’t give up power of taxation
The Seven Years’ War in America
Incident w/ Washington causes virtual state of war
Britain sends General Edward Braddock with troops to seize Fort Duquesne at headwaters of the Ohio
He thought it would be easy
Attacked by French, Indians, and Canadians
Many die
Few casualties on French side
More attacks by French
Shawnee, Delaware, and Mingo Indians attack encroaching settlers from maryland, Virginia, and Pennsylvania
Prevents them from joining British war against France
Other French and Native American attacks take Fort Oswego and Fort William Henryà now French threaten central NY and New England
Changes that lead to success
Iroquois feel France is getting too decisive an advantage
Agree at treaty conference at Easton, Pennsylvania to abandon support of French
Some even join British side
William Pitt takes control of military affairs in British empire
Reinvigorates colonies with British patriotism
Symbol of what Americans and British can accompish together
Pitt choses not to send additional troops to America
Tells colonist militias to mobilize
They won’t have to pay for the military burden, if they raise enough men
More colonists join army
Capture Fort Duquesne under General Jeffry Amherst and Louisbourg by 1758
Push French out of NY
Quebec falls to General James Wolfe
Fighting ends when Montreal surrenders in 1760
The End of French North America, 1760-1763
After Montreal, fighting continues in Europe
France makes a final attempt to reclaim Newfoundland
Defeat inevitable
Treaty of Paris, 1763, ends war
France gives land east of Mississipi (except New orleans) to Britain
Britain gives Cuba back to Spain and Spain gives them Florida
Louisiana isn’t wanted by France or Britainà given to Spain in Treaty of San Ildefonso
Only French holdings are small fishing towns in Newfoundland and sugar islands in West Indies
Acadians
When Acadia taken by British and named Nova Scotia, Britain made citizens swear loyalty to Britain and not to bear arms for the French
Those who refuse are driven from homes
Deported to British colonies
Maryland and Pennsylvania
They face anti-French and anti-Catholic peopleà move to Louisiana
Known as Cajuns
Imperial Revenues and Reorganization, 1760-1766
After victory, problems arise between colonies and Britain
Britain plans to finance its suddenly enlarged empire through revenue measures
These measures to be enforced directly rather than through local governments
Colnists don’t like it
Dangerous extension of parliament
Plans come w/ George III to the throne
Okay being a constitutional monarch but wants to have a lot of influence in government policy
Isn’t very good at it though
Makes frequent, abrupt changes in governmentà colonies unhappy
Colonies Protest
Elites—Address parliament through logic and by citing British constitution and charters
Middle class—organize street demonstrations
Poor—defy elites and British authorities w/ violence
Friction Among Allies, 1760-1763
George III
· George I and II are from Germany
o Let the cabinet do all the government work for him
· He was English—wanted to run government his way
o Appoints Torie prime minister
o Eventually goes back to whigsà prime minister Grenvile is a whig who acts like a torie
· He gets rid of salutary neglect
o Enforces all the laws
o Wants to take control
§ Wants his cabinet to consult him, not the other way around
o Salutary neglect is a form of laissez-faire
§ Let it be—no rules
§ Like having rules but not enforcing them—virtually no rules
§ 1776- Adam Smith writes Wealth of the Nations
· Trade is under heavy regulation
· Revolution—a fundamental change
o In a sense George is attempting a revolution
o Fundamental change in the way the empire is run
· How does George III do it?
o Proclamation of 1763
§ They had just had a war in which Indians living in Ohio Valley sided w/ French
§ To keep good relations w/ Indians, George prevents colonial expansion across the Apalachian mountains
§ Wealthy elites who won’t let poor expand b/c of commitments to outside sources
· Like Bacon’s rebellion
o Writ of assistance
§ Getting around a search warrant
§ To catch smugglers
§ Way to enforce the Navigation Acts
o Sugar Act
§ Enforcement of the molasses act
§ If caught, you have to go to vice-admiralty courts in Nova Scotia
§ No representation by counsel, no jury, no innocent until proven guilty
o Soldiers in America
o Stamp Act
§ Sugar act only affects Massachusetts, New York, and Pennsylvania
§ First internal tax
· Not on soemthing traded across countries, like sugar
· First time they are taxing things that stay inside the colonies
§ Playing cards, documents, wills, and newspapers have the stamp
§ Representatives of colonies have no say in these taxes
· People don’t know if these measures are going to stop after debt is paid
o Don’t want temporary things to become permanent
o Not thinking about breaking from Britain
· After war is over, problems surface
· Complaints during war
o British generals don’t like how colony soldiers would go home after serving their term or missing a paycheck
§ Soldiers don’t like how british generals treat them like slaves
o British don’t like colonial reluctance to provide food and shelter for British officers
§ Colonists don’t like officer’s arrogance
§ Quakers refuse to vote funds to support war
§ Assemblies in NY and Massaschusetts see quartering of soldiers as an encroachment on their English liberties
§ British authorities saw it as an affront to British efforts to defend the territories
· Financial problems
o Many British don’t like the colonies getting out of the war w/o paying anything
§ Colonies actually benefitted from war
· Military contracts
· British soldiers spend money in the colonies
· Some colonists keep trading w/ French West Indies during war—trading w/ enemy and violating Navigation acts
§ In meantime, Britain in debt
· British landowners have to pay land tax
· Duties imposed on many goods in Britain
o Colonists feel burdened too
§ When war was going on, people who profited spent money on British goods
· “consumer revolution”—colonies purchased goods fuel British economy
· When war ends, many people can’t afford to keep their lifestyle
o Go into debt
o Increasingly indebted to Britainà people accuse British of plotting to “enslave colonies”
o Treaty of Paris settlements give rise to new warsà Britain spends more money
· Indian conflicts
o Indians in Ohio and Great Lakes can’t play Britain and France off each other any more
§ Afraid they will be treated like subjects now
§ General Jeffrey Amherst decides to cut expenses by not distributing food, ammunition (for hunting), and gifts to Indians
§ Colonists moving in on Indian lands, harrasing them
o Neolin
§ Delaware religious prophet
§ Attracts intertribal following
§ Wants Indians to get rid of European culture, goods, and alliances
· Hoping French will come back so they can manipulate balance of power again
o Pontiac, Ottawa Indian
§ Makes anti-British movement--“Pontiac’s Rebellion”
· Take 8 British forts and beseiged some more at Pittsburgh and Detroit
§ food & ammunition shortages + smallpoxà make peace w/ Britain
§ British John Stuart in south keeps these uprisings from reaching the south
o George III issues Proclamation of 1763
§ Direct control of land transactions, settlement, ttrade, and other activities of non-Indians west of Appalatian crest given to him
§ Recognizes Indian land claims in places west of “proclamation line”
§ Colonies see it as a hindrance to expansion
o Indian uprisings make Britain decide to leave 10,000 soldiers in colonies
§ Colonies had to share financial burden of supporting these troops
· Colonies didn’t see it as their responsibility
· Saw it as a “standing army” that, if French were gone, could only threaten their liberty
§ Saw army as hindering westward expansion and prosperity
The Writs of Assistance, 1760-1761
During Seven Years’ War, british authorities had tried to keep people from smuggling in goods from French
Writs of Assistance passed by royal governor of Massachusets
Revenue officers can seize illegally imported goods
Doesn’t require probably cause—general search warrant
Threatens traditional respect for privacy of family recidencies b/c many people conduct business from home
Powerful weapon agaisnt smuggling
Boston= smuggling capital of colonies
Boston merchants employ James Otis to challenge constitutionality of Writ
In Massachusetts supreme court, Otis said that Writ went agaisnt constitution
Thomas Hutchinson, chief justice, pointed out that these writs occurred in Britain tooà jury ruled against Otis
Otis points out something interesting
Americans see constitution as set—there are limits beyond which government cannot change things
British see constitution as a collection of laws and traditions
Parliament’s laws includedà Parliament could change the constitution
The Sugar Act, 1764
Would help get rid of some of British military’s expenses in colonies
Navigation acts hadn’t brought money in, they just stimulated British eocnomy
Costs for importing goods paid by British importers, not American producers
Characteristics
Amends molasses Act of 1733
Since then, colonists had been importing Fench molasses still—bribed customs officials
Cheaper that way
Requires that any shipments land in Britain before being routed to destinations
Required a lot of paperwork and if you had a small technical violation your shipment could be seized
Disregarded traditional protections for a fair trial
Customs officials transferred smuggling charches from colonial courts to vice-admiralty courts
Instead of having jury, only one judge gives verdict
Judges got 5% of confiscated cargoà rule guilty a lot
Vice-admiralty courts in Halifax, Nova Scotia
Instead of innocent until proven guilty, people have to disprove charges
Enforced rigorously
British Prime Minister George Grenville gets navy to enforce ti
Britain lowers tax to make it cheaper than French sugar
Revenue goes up
Hurts Massachusetts, NY, and Pennsylvania the most
The Stamp Act, 1765
Revenue didn’t do much to ease British financial crisis
Colonists were taxed a lot less
Parliament passed Stamp Act to raise revenues à obliged colonists to purchase ad use special watermarked paper for various documents
Violators faced prosecution
Was an internal tax – levied directly on property, goods, and government services in the colonies
Designed to raise revenues for crown and had wide effects
Some (including William Pitt) objected to tax
Emphasized that colonists had never been subject to British revenue bills and noted tat they taxes themselves through their own elected assemblies
British Prime Minister George Grenville and his supporters also denied that colonists were entitled to exemption
Elected assemblies = English town councils
Elected assemblies had as much power as Parliament let them have
Colonists argued elected assembles = House of Commons
Colonists felt that the Act forced them to confront the issue of parliamentary taxation directly or to surrender any claim to rights of self-government
Didn’t feel like Parliament represented them
Denied theory of virtual representation
Enjoyed self-government
James Otis expressed basic argument (at Sugar Act opposition): every man is a free man; no parts of crown’s people can be taxed without consent; everyone has a right to be represented in legislature
Colonists thought empire was loose federation in which their legislatures possessed autonomy, rather than long-distance rule from Britain
Resisting the Stamp Act
Response to the stamp act
For sugar act they smuggled things in
For stamp act they use noncooperation
They don’t buy British product that have stamp act tax
Led by groups
Loyal Nine/ Sons of Liberty
Stamp Act Congress
Stamp act Congress
Different from Loyal Nine and Sons of Liberty in methods
Sons of liberty= violent resistance
Lynching an effegy—“killing” a fake replica of a person
Tar and feather people
Stamp act congresses aren’t violent
Try to get a boycott going
Are people joining the boycott b/c they are fed up with taxes
Not because they are feeling threatened by violence
Know that violence won’t win it for them
Elites are afraid of Sons of Liberty
Organizing the boycott
People w/ stamp act congress ar against Britain but also against “nathanial bacon” types
Still recognize that sons of liberty are helping their cause
Still aren’t discussing revolution/separation yet
Just want to get rid of a law
People afraid that violence against british troops will start war
Sons of liberty don’t let followers bear arms
o Unlike Sugar Act, Stamp Act generated political storm thru all colonies in 1765
§ To colonists, Parliament’s passage of act demonstrated its indifference to their interests and the shallowness of the theory of virtual representation
§ Parliament dismissed all petitions against the passage
o May 1765, Patrick Henry, young VA lawyer/planter/orator urged VA House of Burgesses to adopt resolutions denying Parliament’s power to tax colonies
§ Assembly passed only 4 weakest of 7 resolutions
§ By end of yr, 7 other assembles passed resolutions grounded in constitutional arguments vs. the act
§ Henry’s words resonated more loudly outside elite political circles, esp. in Boston:
· In Boston, group of middle-class artisans/small business owners joined together as the Loyal Nine to fight the Stamp Act
· recognized that stamp distributors (who alone could accept $ for water-marked paper) were the law’s weak link à if public could get them to resign before taxes were due Nov 1, Stamp Act àinoperable
· Boston esp. opposed Parl. b/c many lived by shipbuilding, maritime trade, distilling – and were not living well in 1765 partly b/c of Brit policies:
o suffered from Sugar Act’s trade restrictions
o burdened rum producers w/ heavy tax on molasses, dry up Portuguese wine import trade, prohibit export of many New England products
· However, Bostonians’ problems also rooted in older problems:
o Shipbuilding industry surpassed by NY, Philidelphia
o Rum, sugar producers fallen
o Brit forced recruitment took away fishermen from fishing ind.
o Unemployment led to ^ taxes for poor-relief - (many become poor)
o Others still employed struggled w/ ^ prices, taxes
o Great fire in 1760
· Economic distress produced explosive situation in Boston
o Already resentful of elite, many blamed Brit officials + policies
o Poor + working class Bostonians accustomed to forming large crowds for political expression
§ Nov 5, Pope’s Day: 1000s gather to commemorate failure of Catholic plot in Eng in 1605 to blow up Parl. + kill James I
· Bostonians sometimes burned effigies of pope and pol. leaders
· After Stamp Act, Bostonians focused protest against imperial officials
o Loyal Nine tried to warn likeness of Boston’s stamp distributor, Andrew Oliver
o But several 100 Bostonians led by shoemaker Ebenezer MacIntosh demolished Oliver’s house where “stamped” his effigy to pieces
§ Lieutenant Governor Hutchinson and sheriff tried to disperse crowd w/ barrage of rocks
§ Oliver announced his resignation
· Bitterness against Stamp Act à Violence
o 12 days after 1st Boston riot, demolished luxurious home of Thomas Hutchinson (chief justice, symbol of royal policies, tried to stop destruction of Oliver’s house)
§ Ironically, Hutchinson privately opposed Stamp Act
· Sons of Liberty: groups similar to Loyal 9 forming throughout colonies
o Sought to prevent violent outbreaks (like Hutch., and Newport, RI)
§ Recognized that crowds were ignoring customary deference toward social “superiors” à afraid they’d expand to all elites if not contained
§ Fearful of alienating wealthy opponents of SA, Sons of Lib focused actions against property and left avenues of escape for their victims
§ Also fearful that royal soldier or revenue officer might be shot à forbade followers to carry weapons
o “Stamp Act Congress”
§ Oct. 1765 representatives of 9 colonial assemblies met in NYC
§ Colonies agreed that Parl. lacked authority to levy taxes outside of Great Brit and to deny any person a jury trial
§ (only once before had truly intercolonial meeting taken place –Albany Conference in 1754 which failed)
o Effects of Resistance
§ By late 1765, most stamp distributors had resigned/fled
§ and w/o watermarked paper required by law, most royal officials were refusing to perform their duties àIn response, legislators threatened to withhold their pay
§ Simultaneously, merchants obtained sailing clearances by threatening to sue if cargoes were spoiled à most colony harbors functioning again
§ Colonial elites moved to keep situation from getting out of hand by taking over leadership of local Sons of Liberty groups, by coordinating protest thru the Stamp Act Congress and by having colonial legislature restore normal business
§ Elite feared chaos would break out, esp. if Brit troops came to enforce Stamp Act
§ To force the Stamp Act’s repeal, NY’s merchants agreed on Oct 31, 1765 to boycott all Brit goods – (other cities followed) à put Eng economy in danger of recession
· Colonial boycotts triggered panic in Eng and businessmen warned Parl. that continuation of Stamp Act would stimulate wave of bankruptcies, unemployment, political unrest
The Declaratory Act, 1766
Marquis of Rockingham succeeded Grenville as prime minister – mid-1765
Hesitated to advocate repeal – majority within the House of Commons = outraged at colonial defiance of law.
January 1766 – William Pitt (opponent of Stamp Act) denounced efforts to tax colonies.
Parliamentary support for repeal grew – matter of practicality, not surrender of principle.
March 1766 – Parliament revokes Stamp Act.
Stamp act wasn’t raising the revenue it was supposed to
Only in conjunction with a passage of Declaratory Act – affirmed parliamentary power to legislate for the colonies absolutely.
Is British government doing something new?
Parliament kind of thought they already had this power
No one had raised the question before, so now they put it down in writing
Thought that it was an implied power until now
The practice implies that they have this power
But, if you don’t talk about whether you have the right or not, do you have the right?
If you neglect a policy, does it still exist?
There are people who don’t get to participate in political process, in Britain and colonies
Need to meet land requirement
“virtual representation”
A member of parliament “virtually” represents everyone’s interests—regardless of constituencies or who you got voted by
This is rational for everything that British government does in arguments w/ colonies
Dec. Act – written In general language
American interpreted it to advantage.
Colonial political leaders – saw law as modeled after an early statute concerning Ireland, which was exempt from British taxation
Seemed to be parliament’s way of compensating for repeal of Stamp Act – Americans ignored it.
House of Commons – intended for the Americans to take it literally à could not be exempt form parliamentary statute, incl. tax law.
Fundamental disagreement b/w Brits and Americans over political rights.
However – most colonists put behind them the events of 765 à loyal statements fo gratitude to King and parliament.
Sons of Liberty – disbanded
Continued active resistance to law, but began to ponder British policies more deeply.
Ideology, Religion, and Resistance
Chasm between colonies and Britain
For first time, colonists were critical of imperial relationship with England
Educated colonists à used works of philosophers, historians, and political writers to understand new ideas (also religion)
1760s – widely familiar with political writings of Enlightenment thinkers
John Locke.
Humanity originated in state of nature – “natural rights” à life, liberty, and property.
Groups entered into “social contract” à to form governments to protect rights.
Contract broken by a gov’t encroaching on rights à people can resist gov’t, although rebellion is only good in extreme cases.
To colonists, this idea justified opposition to parliament.
Other Writers
Excessive concentrations of political powers = threats to people’s liberty
Emphasis on political community.
Ancient Greeks and Romans à Republican
Sense of civic duty as motivational
Free people need to avoid moral or political corruption – practice “public virtue”
Subordinate personal interests to policy
One elected leader – command by virtue of people.
Oppositionists
Republican English political writers
John Trenchard, Thomas Gordon
Parliament = foundation of England’s political liberties (protected these liberties).
Since 1720 – argue that prime ministers had exploited treasury for pensions, contracts and offices for politicians, OR had bribed voters.
Parliament no longer has true interests – “conspiracy against liberty”
“Country party” – fear corrupt “court party” of elected officials.
A number of colonists pointed to conspiracy behind British policies.
Pamphlets – denounced British “enslavement” efforts through excessive taxation and the imposition of officials – assaults on natural liberties.
Samuel Adams
Hoped American would become a “Christian Sparta”
Linked piety and republican ideals – combined most potent appeals rallying public protest
All Americans – learned about Protestantism
Educated Americans – Greek and Latin learning + English lit.
Thomas Jefferson
Revered ancient republics of Rome and Greece – stern, virtuous devotion to liberty
Pamphlets of Jefferson and Dickinson = quotations from classics
Reminder of righteous dignity to upper class
Appeals to ordinary Americans had to draw upon wellsprings of beliefs.
Patrick Henry – able to evoke religious fervor of Great Awakening.
Protestant Clergymen – called congregation to stand up for God and Liberty
Enormous influence on public opinion
More listened to sermons than read newspaper, etc.
Invoke divine aid – God sends people woes only to strengthen them until victory.
Protest leaders’ calls for boycotting luxuries tied in with pulpit warnings against frivolity.
Resistance Resumes, 1766-1770
Opposing the Quartering Act, 1766-1767
Colonies have to pay certain expenses incurred by soldiers stationed there
Aug. 1766, George III summoned William Pitt to form a cabinet
Pitt = opposed to taxing colonies
But health collapsed and leadership passed to Charles Townshend
Quartering Act, enacted 1765
Ordered colonial legislatures to pay for certain goods needed by soldiers stationed within their respective borders
Resented b/c indirect tax à clashed with assemblies’ claimed power to initiate all revenue-raising measures
QA also reinforced presence of standing army à tyranny in eyes of col.
New Yorks’s Resistance
Prod. anti-American feeling in House of Commons
Townshend drafted the New York Suspending Act – threatened to nullify all laws passed by colony if assemblies refused to vote the supplies
h/e by time George III had signed NYSA, NY has appropriated necessary funds
conflict over QA demonstrated that Brit leaders wouldn’t hesitate to defend Parl.’s authority – even thru interfering w/ American claims to self-governance
The Townshend Duties, 1767
Have to pay taxes on lead, glass, paper, tea…
Townsend
Farmer who experimented w/ crop rotation, selective breeding
Came up w/ new ways to grow turnips
Feeds starving population
Links him to 2 George’s—King, and farmer in Virginia
English gentry mad at govt’s failure to cut taxes from wartime levels à so gentry slashed own taxes 25% à This cost govt lots of money (deficit) so…
Townshend’s Revenue Act of 1767 (aka Townshend Duties)
Townshend proposed laws to tax imports entering America from Britain
Townshend taxed colonists by exploiting oversight in their argument vs. Stamp Act – never said anything against Parl’s right to tax imports as entered colonies ..(sneaky…) – impose external taxes
From colonial standpoint, T’s Duties were taxes just like Stamp Act b/c did not excessively tax goods (so as to regulate/dissuade foreign trade), but instead just set moderate rates à therefore, clearly trying to just add to treasury
Other motive for T’s Duties: Townshend hoped to establish fund that would pay salaries of governors/other royal officials in America, thus freeing them from assemblies’ control
By stripping assemblies of power of the purse, Revenue Act threatened to tip balance of constitutional power away from elected col. Reps and toward nonelected royal officials
Revenue Act never yielded desired $
Only tea produced significant revenue- but had to keep tea affordable
Therefore, RA worsened British treasury’s deficit
From Parl’s standpoint, conflict w/ America was becoming test of national will over principle of taxation
The Colonists’ Reaction, 1767-1769
Colonists
Resistance to Revenue Act remained weak until Dec 1767 when John Dickinson published 12 essays – Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania
Said that Parl. had no right to tax commerce for single purpose of raising revenue
Legality of external tax depended on its intent
Persuaded many that arguments ppl had vs. stamp act also applied to revenue act
James Otis – Boston lawyer famed for arguments in writs-of-assistance case
Chaired Boston town meeting that asked Massachusetts legislature to oppose the Townshend duties
In response, assembly called on Samuel Adams to draft a “circular letter” to every colonial legis in 1768
Letter condemned taxation w/o representation
And threat to self-governance posed by parl’s making governors and other royal officers financially independent of legislatures
But it acknowledge Parl. as “supreme legislative Power over the whole Empire”
Advocated no illegal activities
Virginia’s assembly greatly approved of Adam’s letter and sent out even stronger letter of own urging colonies to oppose imperial policies
h/e most colonial legis responded indifferently
in fact, resistance to Rev Act might have died out if Brit govt hadn’t overreacted to circular letters
Eng’s Response
Parl regarded letters as incentive to rebellion
King’s Privy Council appointed Lord Hillsborough as secretary of state for colonies to express govt’s displeasure
Told Mass to disown letter, forbade other colonies to endorse it
Commanded governors to dissolve any legis that violated instructions
What Colonists did…
To protest Hillsborough, many colonies orig indiff to Mass letter now adopted it enthusiastically
Governors dismissed legislatures
Colonists wonder how they can pressure Parl. to repeal R.A.?
Nonimportation – would distress Brit’s econ
Boston’s merchants adopted nonimportation agreement
Not all colonists supported tho
Effectiveness depended on compliance of merchants
Merchants in some major cities kept buying Brit goods
Boycott more signif. in long run b/c made colonists more active in resisting Brit. Policies
“Wilkes and Liberty,” 1768-1770
Britain is affected by nonimportation policy
Want repeal of Townsend duties
Low wages and high prices
Movement in 1760’s opposing domestic and foreign policies of George III and Parliament dominated by wealthy landowners
John Wilkes
Editor and parliament member
Newspaper expressed opposition to George III’s policies
Government arrests him for libel
He wins his case
But his newspaper is shut down and House of Commons is persuaded to deny him a seat
He offends government more and flees to paris
Comes back in 1768
Townsend acts have people in protests
People rally around Wilkes
Wilkes elected to Parliament
Arrested
“Wilkesites” protest on St. George’s Fields outside prison where Wilkes is kept
Some people start throwing stones
Soldiers and police fire
11 killed
Called “massacre of St. George’s Fields”
Wilkes and an associate elected to Parliament 2 more times and denied seats
Imprisoned Wilkes gets a lot of popular support from colonies
In correspondence w/ Boston Sons of Liberty
People in Britain and colonies pulled into politics
English cities and towns sign petitions protesting Parliament’s refusal to give Wilkes a seat
Think “virtual representation” is a sham
Say refusing seat is affront to electorate’s will
Society of the Supporters of the Bill of Rights
Formed to protect constitutional liberties of subjects
Respectable opponents of government (Endmund Burke, William Pitt…) say Wilkes shouldn’t deal in the “mob”
Wilkes and his following make clear that parliament is a minority w/ too much power that could be legitimately questioned
Women and Colonial Resistance
Key to nonimportation policy is showing Britain and colonies that people can sustain resistance and that their cause rested on moderation, morality, and self sacrifice
White women had been slowly and unevenly getting more influence in politics
In churches they outnumbered men
Seen as examples of piety and morality
Wealthy women make Daughters of Liberty
Play minor role in defeating the stamp act
Also start to express ideas of opposition in discussions and correspondences
During Townsend crisis, women have bigger role
Tea
Take on nonconsumption policy
Women drink most tea of anyone
Hurts ability of Townsend duties to make money
Clothing
Women encouraged to make own clothes for families
Don’t have to buy British ones
Have spinning bees
Forego idleness for liberty
Gives regular household chores, like spinning, a political significance
Feminine virtues prove to expand beyond religious piety
Women participation shows that colonial protest is more widespread
Customs “Racketeering,” 1767-1768
Townshend wanted to increase revenues through strict enforcement of Navigation Acts à submitted Revenue Act of 1767
Introduced legislation – created American Board of Customs Commissioners
Funded various job positions
Fines created more incentive for illegal smuggling
Probability of conviction was high
Wanted to spread this system to colonies
There were protests because of unjust law enforcements (guilty until proven innocent)
No evidence existed but charges were filed
Revenue agents started abusing their powers (i.e. going against traditional sailor’s rights to seize ship)
“Customs racketeering”
Retaliation
Pennsylvania Journal scorned agents as dogs of prey, going after fortune
Agents were despised everywhere
Boston à most hated
Citizens retaliated
John Hancock became chief target of customs commissioners
Was leading opponent of British taxation
Was fined 13x as much as he allegedly evaded on a shipment of wine
Citizens tried to prevent towing of Hancock’s ship – began assault on agents
Mob drove inspectors from Boston
Added to friction between Britain and colonies
The Deepening Crisis, 1770-1774
Colonists argued that acts (i.e. Sugar Act) endangered property rights and civil liberties
Rejection of taxation without representation expanded into rejection of legislation without representation
Later à Parliament had no lawmaking authority over colonies except right to regulate imperial commerce (Navigation Acts)
British reaction to Hancock’s case à dispatched British troops to Boston
Bostonians resented troops – felt that troops threatened liberty and were financial burden
The Boston Massacre, 1770
- Boston was filled with tension à soldiers generated anger
- February 22, 1770 à customs informer shot into a crowd picketing the home of a customs-paying merchant – killed a young boy
o His death unified community – large funeral held
- Army had no part in shooting but it became target
- Cripus Attucks and George Robert Twelves Hewes
o Led crowd against troops to guard post protecting customs office
o Officer tried to disperse citizens – threatened to shoot
o Soldiers fired
- Shock that followed was climax of Townshend crisis
- Royal authorities in Massachusetts tried to settle the problem
o Isolated all British soldiers on an island
o Governor Thomas Hutchinson promised that soldiers who shot would be tried
§ John Adams was their attorney
o Most soldiers were acquitted and those who were guilty suffered light punishment
- Colonists were afraid that British government was going to suppress them through force
Lord North’s Partial Retreat, 1770
New British prime minister: Lord North
Worked to stabilize relations between Britain and colonies
Favored eliminating most of Townshend duties to prevent boycott from widening
Insisted on retaining tax on tea
Parliament agreed – repealed most of T. duties
Parliament’s partial repeal produced problem for American politicians
Considered it intolerable that taxes remained on tea (most profitable item)
Colonists resisted external taxation – didn’t drink tea
Didn’t make a profit to pay salaries of royal governors
British government took steps to control American Board of Customs Commissioners
Dropped charges on Hancock
The Committees of Correspondence, 1772-1773
Lord North’s ministry was preparing to implement Townshend’s goal of paying royal governor’s salaries out of customs revenue
Colonists saw this as threat to representative government
Samuel Adams requested that every Massachusetts community appoint people to various jobs to protect colonial rights
Called Committees of Correspondence
Ideas spread
COCs were colonists’ first attempt to maintain close political cooperation over wide area
Enabled Adams to send out messages easily
Adam publicized certain letters of Hutchinson that Franklin had obtained
Found out that chief executive advocated restriction of natural liberty
Some colonists wanted to destroy basic freedoms
Patrick Henry, Thomas Jefferson, and Richard Henry Lee proposed that Virginia establish colony-level COCs
Network of leaders was created throughout colonies
Dissatisfaction (caused by i.e. Townshend duties) created more friction between Britain and colonies
Felt that British authority threatened liberty and virtue
Backcountry Tensions
Tensions in the west – contributed to ongoing sense of crisis among Indians, settlers and colonial authorities.
Rapid growth – spurred migration and capitol to Appalachian backcountry
Where colonists and gov’t sought access to Indian land
British gov’t helpless in enforcing Proclamation of 1763 – land pressures and inadequate revenue from colonists.
Speculators (ex. GW) – sought western land to seize opportunity before it is lost.
Settlers, traders, hunters, thieves – trespassed on Indian land
Violence by colonists towards Indians – unpunished
British gov’t = unable to maintain garrisons at many forts
Garrisons à enforce violations of laws and treaties; provide gifts to allies.
Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1768)
Britain and Six Nations Iroquois
Grant land along Ohio River that was occupied and claimed by Shawnees, Delawares, and Cherokees to governments of Pennsylvania and VA.
Shawnees = assume leadership of Ohio Indians
Sensed that no policy such as this would stop colonial expansion.
Treaty = heightened western tensions
Ohio country à settlers agitated to establish Kentucky
Violence culminates (1774)
Slaughter of 13 Shawnees and Mingos, including 8 Logans à leading Mingo family
Outraged Logan – leads force that kills 13 white Virginians
VA – campaign against the Indians
Lord Dunmore’s War (1774)
Colony’s governor
Conflict at Point Pleasant (VA side of the Ohio River)
English victory
Peace conference – VA gets rights to lands south of Ohio river and gave up claims on northern side.
Anglo-Indian resentments continue
Some conflicts with Indians led to conflicts within colonists
Colonists moving west in MA were challenged by NY landlords
1766 – 2 landlords threaten to evict tenants
New Englanders aide in armed uprising – Sons of Liberty (after Stamp Act protesters)
1769 00 New Hampshire vs. NY à 4 years of guerilla warfare
NH settlers (“Green Mountain Boys”) – establish independent gov’t.
Eventually became gov’t of Vermont
More NE settlers à settle in PA and clash there.
Backcountry Settlers vs. Colonial Governments
NC – Regulators aimed to redress the grievances of westerners who were under-represented in the colonial assembly and exploited by dishonest eastern officeholders.
May 16, 1771 – Battle of Alamance Creek
NC’s royal governor defeats Regulators – 300 casualties
Movement results in colony’s crippled ability to resist British authority.
Armed Regulator movement in SC – counter government’s unwillingness to prosecute bandits.
Gov’t not want to dispatch militia à fear of slave uprising
Conceded to demands à establish 4 new judicial circuits and allow jury trials
Tea Act, 1773
Colonial smuggling and nonconsumption = heavy toll on British East India Company
Legal monopoly on the sale of tea in Britain’s Empire
1773 – on brink of bankruptcy
Lord North – cannot afford to lose company
Maid substantial duties on shipped tea
Provided indirect savings for government by maintaining British authority in India.
Want to control colonial market – increase profits
1773 – colonies only purchasing ¼ of the million lbs they consume a year from the BEIC.
May 1773 – Tea Act
Lowered selling prices by eliminating import duties on tea entering England.
Permitted the company to sell directly to consumers, rather than to wholesalers
Price now well below that of smuggled competition
Alarmed many Americans:
Menace to liberty and virtue and colonial representative government
Raises revenue, which is used to pay royal governors
Corrupt Americans into accepting parliamentary taxation by exploiting weakness for luxury
Committees of correspondence – peaceful resistance of tea imports
Kept cargoes from landing – persuasion, interception, etc.
Boston – failed
Boston Tea Party
November 28, 1773 – first ship under jurisdiction of the customhouse came.
Duties would have to be paid within 20 days, or cargo would be seized
Sam Adams and John Hancock repeatedly asked the customs office to issue a clearance of the ship’s departure, but they wouldn’t à Thomas Hutchinson’s refusal to compromise
December 16 – 5,000 Bostonians gather in Old South Church
Sam Adams informs citizens of Hutchinson’s insistence on landing the tea
50 young men (including George Robert Twelves Hewes) disguised themselves as Mohawk Indians
Symbolizes a virtuous, proud American identity separate from that of Britain.
Armed with tomahawks
Assaulted no one, only damaged the cargo à heaved 45 tons of tea overboard while thousands looked on.
Quiet the whole time à “never more still or calm”
Toward Independence, 1774-1776
Liberty for Black Americans
The Coercive Acts
The First Continental Congress
(fyi – I didn’t include the ppl there b/c a lot, so see p. 151 if think is necessary)
Sept. 5, 1774- In response to the “Intolerable Acts”, the extralegal committees of correspondence of every colony but Georgia sent delegates to a Continental Congress in Philadelphia
Delegates came together to find way of defending colonies’ rights in common
First Continental Congress opened by endorsing set of statements of principle called the Suffolk Resolves that had recently placed Mass in a state of passive rebellion. Resolves decl that:
Colonies owed no obedience to any of Coercive Acts
Provisional govt should collect taxes until former Mass charter was restored
Defensive measures should be taken in event of attack by royal troops
Continental Association- agreement in which FCC voted to boycott brit goods and to cease exporting almost all goods to Brit + W Indies unless reconciliation accomplished
Bold defiance not liked by all delegates
Moderates feared internal turmoil that would accompany confrontation w/ Britain
These “trimmers” opposed nonimportation and tried to endorse plan for a “Grand Council”- an American legis that would share authority to tax and govern colonies w/ Parl. – didn’t work
Finally, delegates summarized principles/demands in petition to king
Affirmed Parl’s power to regulate imperial commerce, but argued that Parl’s previous efforts to impose taxes, enforce laws thru admiralty courts, suspend assemblies, and revoke charters were unconstitutional
By addressing king rather than Parl, congress was imploring George III to end crisis by dismissing ministers who passed Coercive Acts
From Resistance to Rebellion
Most Americans hoped their resistance would jolt parl. into renouncing all authority over colonies except trade regulation
But tensions between moderates and radicals ran high
To solidify their defiance, colonial resistance leaders coerced waverers and loyalists (Tories) – got merchants to stop importing Brit goods etc.
By 1775, colonial patriots had established provincial “congresses” that paralleled and rivaled the existing colonial assemblies headed by royal governors
Britain answered colonies’ challenge in Mass in April 1775:
In Mass, colonists had organized extralegal milita units (minutemen) prepared vs. possible brit attack
Brit govt ordered Mass’s Governor Gage to arrest principal patriot leaders
Gage sent Brit soldiers to take colonists’ mil. supplies stored at Concord
William Dawes and Paul Revere warned of approaching Brits
Concord- 273 Brit deaths, 92 colonists
Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia
Most delegates still opposed independence and at Dickinson’s urging agreed to send “loyal message” to George III (Olive Branch Petition)
Olive Branch Petition
Politely presented 3 demands:
A cease-fire at Boston
Repeal of Coercive Acts
Negotiations to estab. guarantees of American rights
While pleading for peace, also passed measures brits saw as rebellious
E.g., voted to estab. an “American Continental Army” – appt George Washington as commander
In London,
News of Olive Branch Petition, Continental Army’s Formation, and battles at Breed’s Hill and Bunker Hill – great Brit casualties
After Bunker hill, many brits wanted retaliation
Aug, George III proclaimed New England in state of rebellion à Oct, extended to all colonies
Dec, Parl decl. colonies rebellious, outlawing all Brit trade w/ them, subjecting their ships to seizure
Common Sense
Many colonists clung to hopes of reconciliation
Also clung to notion that evil ministers rather than king were forcing unconstitutional measures on them and that saner heads would rise to power in Brit. à wrong!
When George III decl. colonies in rebellion, Anglo-Americans had to either submit or to acknowledge their goal of national independence
Thomas Paine’s Common Sense
Monarchy was an institution rooted in superstition, dangerous to liberty, and inappropriate to Americans
America had no econ. need for Brit connection
Events or preceding 6 months had made independence a reality
Linked America’s awakening nationalism with the sense of religious mission felt by many New Englanders
America would be new kind of nation, a model society founded on republican principles and unburdened by the oppressive beliefs/corrupt institutions of European past
Common Sense dissolved lingering allegiance to George III and Great Britain, removing the last psychological barrier to Amer independence
Declaring Independence
Common Sense stimulates local gatherings
Extralegal legislatures declare independence from Britain
July 2,1776- Congress created the United States of America
Committee put together to draft statement of independence
Benjamin Franklin
John Adams
Thomas Jefferson (principal author)
Enlightenment
John Locke’s ideas
Natural rights
Social contract
If government not protecting natural rightsà tyrannical
People have right to overthrow
Pursuit of Happiness—progress
Changes:
Pursuit of happiness—replaces “property”
Happiness determined by an individual basis
Government is there to facilitate each person’s own pursuits
delete statement blaming George III for forcing slavery on colonies
Move focus off of wanting representation—want an outright split
List 27 “injuries and usurpations” committed by George III against colonies
Focus less on individual politicians
Recognize that Parliament and King have become too tyrannical
Say that Britain has violated social contract
Colonies have a right to replace him w/ their own government
Emphasis on equality and natural entitlement to justice, liberty, and self-fulfillment based not on exploitation or legal privilege
Make the statement that George III’s rule as tyrannical
Have to prove it
Charges
Changing locations of legislaturesà move things to Nova Scotia
Dissolve representative governmentsà House of Burgesses is dissolved; dissolve Massachusetts government
Preventing immigration and expansionà Proclamation of 1763
Administration of justiceà vice-admiralty courts
New offices/swarms of officersà Quartering Act
“our constitution”à British constitution, not a written document- evolutionary; say Britain isn’t following it any more
Abolishing free system of English laws in Quebecà Quebec act; no representative government in Quebec; Britain supporting Catholics in Quebec
Whig ideology—government closest to you governs best
Elements of Great Awakening it Declaration
“protection of Divine Providence”
Active presence of God= Great Awakening
“endowed by creator”
God left colonies to themselves= enlightenment
Taking back rights—“ full power to levy war…and do all other acts and things which independent states may of right do”
Not a question of just taking back what Britain took from colonies
Say that the way Britain took back powers from colonies makes Britain a tyrant
b/c Britain is tyrantàsplit
Declaration also addresses people unsure about splitting from Britain
Wants to convince people that social and political progress can’t happen under the British
Also addresses people from other countries
Know they’ll need allies
That’s why their allegations are trying to make a case
Some important things not clarified
Equality of slaves/free blacks
Equality of women
Equality of native Americans
Declaration of Independence by Continental Congress makes it something greater
Moves colonists to political action
Hastens struggle for independence
Challenges people to make equality and perfect justice more of a reality by splitting w/ Britain
Revolution
Revolution: A FUNDAMENTAL change
Is the revolutionary war the American Revolution?
Does the military fighting equal the fundamental change?
Not really a change—they want to keep what they’ve got
In a sense, the British are the revolutionaries, and the colonies are the conservatives
Britain is changing from limited monarchy to unlimited monarchy
George III is changing things
Are the colonies a democracy?
Not really, many people are excluded—women, slaves, non-landowners
Education and property ownership were types of qualifications
People don’t like the idea of democracy
Associated with mob rule—Sons of Liberty, Boston Tea Party
Never mentioned in the constitution
States determine who can vote
Suffrage is not a natural right
States determine the manner of elections
Benjamin Franklin proposed self-governance under the crown
Dominion of North America
Own prime minister etc.
American revolution is about liberty and right to participate
Fundamental change goes with fundamental conservatism in maintaining things the way they were in the colonies
Some people in Parliament are also saying that colonies should be let go
Wilberforce
Burke
Boyer, pp. 109-114, 125-127. What overall effect did Britain's global commercial wars have on the development of the British American colonies? How was the French and Indian War especially significant?
Boyer, pp. 128-139. How did imperial reorganization and British colonial policy cause colonial resistance? What was the nature of the resistance?
Boyer, pp. 139-149. Why did resistance to British control intensify?
Boyer, pp. 149-155, 159-164, A1-A2 (appendix-The Declaration of Independence). To what extent was the United States a unified country in 1776? What were the justifications used for separation in 1776? DBQ Due.
Book Questions:
How and why did their joint triumph in the Seven Years’ War lead to a rupture between Britain and the American Colonies?
Why did differences between British officials and colonists over revenue-raising measures lead to a more fundamental conflict over political authority within the colonies?
How did the imperial crisis lead non-elite colonists to become politically active?
What were the major factors leading most colonists to abandon their loyalty to Britain and instead choose national independence?
French Indian War
Colonies linked together like Britain wanted
Concerns: raw materials, trade routes/ports, buffering against other territories
Population in colonies booming
Need a place to go
Want to go west
French there
French don’t want English movement into Ohio
Britain and France conflict over who owns the land
Benjamin Franklin sees war coming
He and Thomas Hutchinson propose Albany Plan of Union
Would benefit the British empire and colonies
English interest= Colony interest
Would allow them to collectively pool money
Washington convinces governor to let him go out to Ohio to get land
Embarrassedà sent back failed
General Braddock goes outà gets killed
Believed in fighting in European style
You have to fight differently in America
French Indian War is an extension of Seven Years’ War
Could be called a world war
Need a strategy to fight in many different places
British Prime minister= William Pitt
William Pitt gets success
Lets the colonists do the fighting
Better at fighting Indians than Europeans
British government promises to pay back colonial military expenses
British navy mobilizes the troops but British don’t do very much besides
Colonists are supposed to keep French from coming over the Appalachians
British make a strike at Quebec
British win
Treaty of Paris
French land given to Enland
Florida given to England
French only control louisiana
Spanish and French lands don’t have as many cities as Britain
Pitt is out of office 3 years before war ends (1763)
Change in monarch too year
George III
Choses new Prime minister
Nobody pays the colonies back for war
Start taxing colonies
Ignore pitt’s promises
The Triumph of the British Empire, 1750-176
In King George’s war
Austria moves alliance to France
Britain joins with Prussia
Seven Years’ War ensues
A Fragile Peace, 1750-1754
King George’s War didn’t establish a dominant power : France or Britain
Preparing for another war
Conflict most present in Ohio River Valley
Competed over by Virginai, Pennsylvania, France, the Six Nations Iroquois, and the Native Americans who actually lived there
To get rid of Virginia and Pennsylvania traders, French start making a chain of forts
Retaliation—colonies send 21 year old George Washington
Surveryor/speculator
Supposed to persuade or force French to leave
Fench drive him and his militiamen back home
Colonies try to get on Native American’s good side
Delegates from 7 colonies north of Virginia gather in Albany, New York
Give Iroquois lots of gifts to keep them temporarily neutral
Indians living in Ohio River Valley sided w/ French
Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Hutchinson (Mass.) suggest Albany Plan of Union
Grand Council would represent all colonial assemblies
Work out problems in military defense and Indian affairs
Could demand funds from colonies
Doesn’t get made b/c colonies won’t give up power of taxation
The Seven Years’ War in America
Incident w/ Washington causes virtual state of war
Britain sends General Edward Braddock with troops to seize Fort Duquesne at headwaters of the Ohio
He thought it would be easy
Attacked by French, Indians, and Canadians
Many die
Few casualties on French side
More attacks by French
Shawnee, Delaware, and Mingo Indians attack encroaching settlers from maryland, Virginia, and Pennsylvania
Prevents them from joining British war against France
Other French and Native American attacks take Fort Oswego and Fort William Henryà now French threaten central NY and New England
Changes that lead to success
Iroquois feel France is getting too decisive an advantage
Agree at treaty conference at Easton, Pennsylvania to abandon support of French
Some even join British side
William Pitt takes control of military affairs in British empire
Reinvigorates colonies with British patriotism
Symbol of what Americans and British can accompish together
Pitt choses not to send additional troops to America
Tells colonist militias to mobilize
They won’t have to pay for the military burden, if they raise enough men
More colonists join army
Capture Fort Duquesne under General Jeffry Amherst and Louisbourg by 1758
Push French out of NY
Quebec falls to General James Wolfe
Fighting ends when Montreal surrenders in 1760
The End of French North America, 1760-1763
After Montreal, fighting continues in Europe
France makes a final attempt to reclaim Newfoundland
Defeat inevitable
Treaty of Paris, 1763, ends war
France gives land east of Mississipi (except New orleans) to Britain
Britain gives Cuba back to Spain and Spain gives them Florida
Louisiana isn’t wanted by France or Britainà given to Spain in Treaty of San Ildefonso
Only French holdings are small fishing towns in Newfoundland and sugar islands in West Indies
Acadians
When Acadia taken by British and named Nova Scotia, Britain made citizens swear loyalty to Britain and not to bear arms for the French
Those who refuse are driven from homes
Deported to British colonies
Maryland and Pennsylvania
They face anti-French and anti-Catholic peopleà move to Louisiana
Known as Cajuns
Imperial Revenues and Reorganization, 1760-1766
After victory, problems arise between colonies and Britain
Britain plans to finance its suddenly enlarged empire through revenue measures
These measures to be enforced directly rather than through local governments
Colnists don’t like it
Dangerous extension of parliament
Plans come w/ George III to the throne
Okay being a constitutional monarch but wants to have a lot of influence in government policy
Isn’t very good at it though
Makes frequent, abrupt changes in governmentà colonies unhappy
Colonies Protest
Elites—Address parliament through logic and by citing British constitution and charters
Middle class—organize street demonstrations
Poor—defy elites and British authorities w/ violence
Friction Among Allies, 1760-1763
George III
· George I and II are from Germany
o Let the cabinet do all the government work for him
· He was English—wanted to run government his way
o Appoints Torie prime minister
o Eventually goes back to whigsà prime minister Grenvile is a whig who acts like a torie
· He gets rid of salutary neglect
o Enforces all the laws
o Wants to take control
§ Wants his cabinet to consult him, not the other way around
o Salutary neglect is a form of laissez-faire
§ Let it be—no rules
§ Like having rules but not enforcing them—virtually no rules
§ 1776- Adam Smith writes Wealth of the Nations
· Trade is under heavy regulation
· Revolution—a fundamental change
o In a sense George is attempting a revolution
o Fundamental change in the way the empire is run
· How does George III do it?
o Proclamation of 1763
§ They had just had a war in which Indians living in Ohio Valley sided w/ French
§ To keep good relations w/ Indians, George prevents colonial expansion across the Apalachian mountains
§ Wealthy elites who won’t let poor expand b/c of commitments to outside sources
· Like Bacon’s rebellion
o Writ of assistance
§ Getting around a search warrant
§ To catch smugglers
§ Way to enforce the Navigation Acts
o Sugar Act
§ Enforcement of the molasses act
§ If caught, you have to go to vice-admiralty courts in Nova Scotia
§ No representation by counsel, no jury, no innocent until proven guilty
o Soldiers in America
o Stamp Act
§ Sugar act only affects Massachusetts, New York, and Pennsylvania
§ First internal tax
· Not on soemthing traded across countries, like sugar
· First time they are taxing things that stay inside the colonies
§ Playing cards, documents, wills, and newspapers have the stamp
§ Representatives of colonies have no say in these taxes
· People don’t know if these measures are going to stop after debt is paid
o Don’t want temporary things to become permanent
o Not thinking about breaking from Britain
· After war is over, problems surface
· Complaints during war
o British generals don’t like how colony soldiers would go home after serving their term or missing a paycheck
§ Soldiers don’t like how british generals treat them like slaves
o British don’t like colonial reluctance to provide food and shelter for British officers
§ Colonists don’t like officer’s arrogance
§ Quakers refuse to vote funds to support war
§ Assemblies in NY and Massaschusetts see quartering of soldiers as an encroachment on their English liberties
§ British authorities saw it as an affront to British efforts to defend the territories
· Financial problems
o Many British don’t like the colonies getting out of the war w/o paying anything
§ Colonies actually benefitted from war
· Military contracts
· British soldiers spend money in the colonies
· Some colonists keep trading w/ French West Indies during war—trading w/ enemy and violating Navigation acts
§ In meantime, Britain in debt
· British landowners have to pay land tax
· Duties imposed on many goods in Britain
o Colonists feel burdened too
§ When war was going on, people who profited spent money on British goods
· “consumer revolution”—colonies purchased goods fuel British economy
· When war ends, many people can’t afford to keep their lifestyle
o Go into debt
o Increasingly indebted to Britainà people accuse British of plotting to “enslave colonies”
o Treaty of Paris settlements give rise to new warsà Britain spends more money
· Indian conflicts
o Indians in Ohio and Great Lakes can’t play Britain and France off each other any more
§ Afraid they will be treated like subjects now
§ General Jeffrey Amherst decides to cut expenses by not distributing food, ammunition (for hunting), and gifts to Indians
§ Colonists moving in on Indian lands, harrasing them
o Neolin
§ Delaware religious prophet
§ Attracts intertribal following
§ Wants Indians to get rid of European culture, goods, and alliances
· Hoping French will come back so they can manipulate balance of power again
o Pontiac, Ottawa Indian
§ Makes anti-British movement--“Pontiac’s Rebellion”
· Take 8 British forts and beseiged some more at Pittsburgh and Detroit
§ food & ammunition shortages + smallpoxà make peace w/ Britain
§ British John Stuart in south keeps these uprisings from reaching the south
o George III issues Proclamation of 1763
§ Direct control of land transactions, settlement, ttrade, and other activities of non-Indians west of Appalatian crest given to him
§ Recognizes Indian land claims in places west of “proclamation line”
§ Colonies see it as a hindrance to expansion
o Indian uprisings make Britain decide to leave 10,000 soldiers in colonies
§ Colonies had to share financial burden of supporting these troops
· Colonies didn’t see it as their responsibility
· Saw it as a “standing army” that, if French were gone, could only threaten their liberty
§ Saw army as hindering westward expansion and prosperity
The Writs of Assistance, 1760-1761
During Seven Years’ War, british authorities had tried to keep people from smuggling in goods from French
Writs of Assistance passed by royal governor of Massachusets
Revenue officers can seize illegally imported goods
Doesn’t require probably cause—general search warrant
Threatens traditional respect for privacy of family recidencies b/c many people conduct business from home
Powerful weapon agaisnt smuggling
Boston= smuggling capital of colonies
Boston merchants employ James Otis to challenge constitutionality of Writ
In Massachusetts supreme court, Otis said that Writ went agaisnt constitution
Thomas Hutchinson, chief justice, pointed out that these writs occurred in Britain tooà jury ruled against Otis
Otis points out something interesting
Americans see constitution as set—there are limits beyond which government cannot change things
British see constitution as a collection of laws and traditions
Parliament’s laws includedà Parliament could change the constitution
The Sugar Act, 1764
Would help get rid of some of British military’s expenses in colonies
Navigation acts hadn’t brought money in, they just stimulated British eocnomy
Costs for importing goods paid by British importers, not American producers
Characteristics
Amends molasses Act of 1733
Since then, colonists had been importing Fench molasses still—bribed customs officials
Cheaper that way
Requires that any shipments land in Britain before being routed to destinations
Required a lot of paperwork and if you had a small technical violation your shipment could be seized
Disregarded traditional protections for a fair trial
Customs officials transferred smuggling charches from colonial courts to vice-admiralty courts
Instead of having jury, only one judge gives verdict
Judges got 5% of confiscated cargoà rule guilty a lot
Vice-admiralty courts in Halifax, Nova Scotia
Instead of innocent until proven guilty, people have to disprove charges
Enforced rigorously
British Prime Minister George Grenville gets navy to enforce ti
Britain lowers tax to make it cheaper than French sugar
Revenue goes up
Hurts Massachusetts, NY, and Pennsylvania the most
The Stamp Act, 1765
Revenue didn’t do much to ease British financial crisis
Colonists were taxed a lot less
Parliament passed Stamp Act to raise revenues à obliged colonists to purchase ad use special watermarked paper for various documents
Violators faced prosecution
Was an internal tax – levied directly on property, goods, and government services in the colonies
Designed to raise revenues for crown and had wide effects
Some (including William Pitt) objected to tax
Emphasized that colonists had never been subject to British revenue bills and noted tat they taxes themselves through their own elected assemblies
British Prime Minister George Grenville and his supporters also denied that colonists were entitled to exemption
Elected assemblies = English town councils
Elected assemblies had as much power as Parliament let them have
Colonists argued elected assembles = House of Commons
Colonists felt that the Act forced them to confront the issue of parliamentary taxation directly or to surrender any claim to rights of self-government
Didn’t feel like Parliament represented them
Denied theory of virtual representation
Enjoyed self-government
James Otis expressed basic argument (at Sugar Act opposition): every man is a free man; no parts of crown’s people can be taxed without consent; everyone has a right to be represented in legislature
Colonists thought empire was loose federation in which their legislatures possessed autonomy, rather than long-distance rule from Britain
Resisting the Stamp Act
Response to the stamp act
For sugar act they smuggled things in
For stamp act they use noncooperation
They don’t buy British product that have stamp act tax
Led by groups
Loyal Nine/ Sons of Liberty
Stamp Act Congress
Stamp act Congress
Different from Loyal Nine and Sons of Liberty in methods
Sons of liberty= violent resistance
Lynching an effegy—“killing” a fake replica of a person
Tar and feather people
Stamp act congresses aren’t violent
Try to get a boycott going
Are people joining the boycott b/c they are fed up with taxes
Not because they are feeling threatened by violence
Know that violence won’t win it for them
Elites are afraid of Sons of Liberty
Organizing the boycott
People w/ stamp act congress ar against Britain but also against “nathanial bacon” types
Still recognize that sons of liberty are helping their cause
Still aren’t discussing revolution/separation yet
Just want to get rid of a law
People afraid that violence against british troops will start war
Sons of liberty don’t let followers bear arms
o Unlike Sugar Act, Stamp Act generated political storm thru all colonies in 1765
§ To colonists, Parliament’s passage of act demonstrated its indifference to their interests and the shallowness of the theory of virtual representation
§ Parliament dismissed all petitions against the passage
o May 1765, Patrick Henry, young VA lawyer/planter/orator urged VA House of Burgesses to adopt resolutions denying Parliament’s power to tax colonies
§ Assembly passed only 4 weakest of 7 resolutions
§ By end of yr, 7 other assembles passed resolutions grounded in constitutional arguments vs. the act
§ Henry’s words resonated more loudly outside elite political circles, esp. in Boston:
· In Boston, group of middle-class artisans/small business owners joined together as the Loyal Nine to fight the Stamp Act
· recognized that stamp distributors (who alone could accept $ for water-marked paper) were the law’s weak link à if public could get them to resign before taxes were due Nov 1, Stamp Act àinoperable
· Boston esp. opposed Parl. b/c many lived by shipbuilding, maritime trade, distilling – and were not living well in 1765 partly b/c of Brit policies:
o suffered from Sugar Act’s trade restrictions
o burdened rum producers w/ heavy tax on molasses, dry up Portuguese wine import trade, prohibit export of many New England products
· However, Bostonians’ problems also rooted in older problems:
o Shipbuilding industry surpassed by NY, Philidelphia
o Rum, sugar producers fallen
o Brit forced recruitment took away fishermen from fishing ind.
o Unemployment led to ^ taxes for poor-relief - (many become poor)
o Others still employed struggled w/ ^ prices, taxes
o Great fire in 1760
· Economic distress produced explosive situation in Boston
o Already resentful of elite, many blamed Brit officials + policies
o Poor + working class Bostonians accustomed to forming large crowds for political expression
§ Nov 5, Pope’s Day: 1000s gather to commemorate failure of Catholic plot in Eng in 1605 to blow up Parl. + kill James I
· Bostonians sometimes burned effigies of pope and pol. leaders
· After Stamp Act, Bostonians focused protest against imperial officials
o Loyal Nine tried to warn likeness of Boston’s stamp distributor, Andrew Oliver
o But several 100 Bostonians led by shoemaker Ebenezer MacIntosh demolished Oliver’s house where “stamped” his effigy to pieces
§ Lieutenant Governor Hutchinson and sheriff tried to disperse crowd w/ barrage of rocks
§ Oliver announced his resignation
· Bitterness against Stamp Act à Violence
o 12 days after 1st Boston riot, demolished luxurious home of Thomas Hutchinson (chief justice, symbol of royal policies, tried to stop destruction of Oliver’s house)
§ Ironically, Hutchinson privately opposed Stamp Act
· Sons of Liberty: groups similar to Loyal 9 forming throughout colonies
o Sought to prevent violent outbreaks (like Hutch., and Newport, RI)
§ Recognized that crowds were ignoring customary deference toward social “superiors” à afraid they’d expand to all elites if not contained
§ Fearful of alienating wealthy opponents of SA, Sons of Lib focused actions against property and left avenues of escape for their victims
§ Also fearful that royal soldier or revenue officer might be shot à forbade followers to carry weapons
o “Stamp Act Congress”
§ Oct. 1765 representatives of 9 colonial assemblies met in NYC
§ Colonies agreed that Parl. lacked authority to levy taxes outside of Great Brit and to deny any person a jury trial
§ (only once before had truly intercolonial meeting taken place –Albany Conference in 1754 which failed)
o Effects of Resistance
§ By late 1765, most stamp distributors had resigned/fled
§ and w/o watermarked paper required by law, most royal officials were refusing to perform their duties àIn response, legislators threatened to withhold their pay
§ Simultaneously, merchants obtained sailing clearances by threatening to sue if cargoes were spoiled à most colony harbors functioning again
§ Colonial elites moved to keep situation from getting out of hand by taking over leadership of local Sons of Liberty groups, by coordinating protest thru the Stamp Act Congress and by having colonial legislature restore normal business
§ Elite feared chaos would break out, esp. if Brit troops came to enforce Stamp Act
§ To force the Stamp Act’s repeal, NY’s merchants agreed on Oct 31, 1765 to boycott all Brit goods – (other cities followed) à put Eng economy in danger of recession
· Colonial boycotts triggered panic in Eng and businessmen warned Parl. that continuation of Stamp Act would stimulate wave of bankruptcies, unemployment, political unrest
The Declaratory Act, 1766
Marquis of Rockingham succeeded Grenville as prime minister – mid-1765
Hesitated to advocate repeal – majority within the House of Commons = outraged at colonial defiance of law.
January 1766 – William Pitt (opponent of Stamp Act) denounced efforts to tax colonies.
Parliamentary support for repeal grew – matter of practicality, not surrender of principle.
March 1766 – Parliament revokes Stamp Act.
Stamp act wasn’t raising the revenue it was supposed to
Only in conjunction with a passage of Declaratory Act – affirmed parliamentary power to legislate for the colonies absolutely.
Is British government doing something new?
Parliament kind of thought they already had this power
No one had raised the question before, so now they put it down in writing
Thought that it was an implied power until now
The practice implies that they have this power
But, if you don’t talk about whether you have the right or not, do you have the right?
If you neglect a policy, does it still exist?
There are people who don’t get to participate in political process, in Britain and colonies
Need to meet land requirement
“virtual representation”
A member of parliament “virtually” represents everyone’s interests—regardless of constituencies or who you got voted by
This is rational for everything that British government does in arguments w/ colonies
Dec. Act – written In general language
American interpreted it to advantage.
Colonial political leaders – saw law as modeled after an early statute concerning Ireland, which was exempt from British taxation
Seemed to be parliament’s way of compensating for repeal of Stamp Act – Americans ignored it.
House of Commons – intended for the Americans to take it literally à could not be exempt form parliamentary statute, incl. tax law.
Fundamental disagreement b/w Brits and Americans over political rights.
However – most colonists put behind them the events of 765 à loyal statements fo gratitude to King and parliament.
Sons of Liberty – disbanded
Continued active resistance to law, but began to ponder British policies more deeply.
Ideology, Religion, and Resistance
Chasm between colonies and Britain
For first time, colonists were critical of imperial relationship with England
Educated colonists à used works of philosophers, historians, and political writers to understand new ideas (also religion)
1760s – widely familiar with political writings of Enlightenment thinkers
John Locke.
Humanity originated in state of nature – “natural rights” à life, liberty, and property.
Groups entered into “social contract” à to form governments to protect rights.
Contract broken by a gov’t encroaching on rights à people can resist gov’t, although rebellion is only good in extreme cases.
To colonists, this idea justified opposition to parliament.
Other Writers
Excessive concentrations of political powers = threats to people’s liberty
Emphasis on political community.
Ancient Greeks and Romans à Republican
Sense of civic duty as motivational
Free people need to avoid moral or political corruption – practice “public virtue”
Subordinate personal interests to policy
One elected leader – command by virtue of people.
Oppositionists
Republican English political writers
John Trenchard, Thomas Gordon
Parliament = foundation of England’s political liberties (protected these liberties).
Since 1720 – argue that prime ministers had exploited treasury for pensions, contracts and offices for politicians, OR had bribed voters.
Parliament no longer has true interests – “conspiracy against liberty”
“Country party” – fear corrupt “court party” of elected officials.
A number of colonists pointed to conspiracy behind British policies.
Pamphlets – denounced British “enslavement” efforts through excessive taxation and the imposition of officials – assaults on natural liberties.
Samuel Adams
Hoped American would become a “Christian Sparta”
Linked piety and republican ideals – combined most potent appeals rallying public protest
All Americans – learned about Protestantism
Educated Americans – Greek and Latin learning + English lit.
Thomas Jefferson
Revered ancient republics of Rome and Greece – stern, virtuous devotion to liberty
Pamphlets of Jefferson and Dickinson = quotations from classics
Reminder of righteous dignity to upper class
Appeals to ordinary Americans had to draw upon wellsprings of beliefs.
Patrick Henry – able to evoke religious fervor of Great Awakening.
Protestant Clergymen – called congregation to stand up for God and Liberty
Enormous influence on public opinion
More listened to sermons than read newspaper, etc.
Invoke divine aid – God sends people woes only to strengthen them until victory.
Protest leaders’ calls for boycotting luxuries tied in with pulpit warnings against frivolity.
Resistance Resumes, 1766-1770
Opposing the Quartering Act, 1766-1767
Colonies have to pay certain expenses incurred by soldiers stationed there
Aug. 1766, George III summoned William Pitt to form a cabinet
Pitt = opposed to taxing colonies
But health collapsed and leadership passed to Charles Townshend
Quartering Act, enacted 1765
Ordered colonial legislatures to pay for certain goods needed by soldiers stationed within their respective borders
Resented b/c indirect tax à clashed with assemblies’ claimed power to initiate all revenue-raising measures
QA also reinforced presence of standing army à tyranny in eyes of col.
New Yorks’s Resistance
Prod. anti-American feeling in House of Commons
Townshend drafted the New York Suspending Act – threatened to nullify all laws passed by colony if assemblies refused to vote the supplies
h/e by time George III had signed NYSA, NY has appropriated necessary funds
conflict over QA demonstrated that Brit leaders wouldn’t hesitate to defend Parl.’s authority – even thru interfering w/ American claims to self-governance
The Townshend Duties, 1767
Have to pay taxes on lead, glass, paper, tea…
Townsend
Farmer who experimented w/ crop rotation, selective breeding
Came up w/ new ways to grow turnips
Feeds starving population
Links him to 2 George’s—King, and farmer in Virginia
English gentry mad at govt’s failure to cut taxes from wartime levels à so gentry slashed own taxes 25% à This cost govt lots of money (deficit) so…
Townshend’s Revenue Act of 1767 (aka Townshend Duties)
Townshend proposed laws to tax imports entering America from Britain
Townshend taxed colonists by exploiting oversight in their argument vs. Stamp Act – never said anything against Parl’s right to tax imports as entered colonies ..(sneaky…) – impose external taxes
From colonial standpoint, T’s Duties were taxes just like Stamp Act b/c did not excessively tax goods (so as to regulate/dissuade foreign trade), but instead just set moderate rates à therefore, clearly trying to just add to treasury
Other motive for T’s Duties: Townshend hoped to establish fund that would pay salaries of governors/other royal officials in America, thus freeing them from assemblies’ control
By stripping assemblies of power of the purse, Revenue Act threatened to tip balance of constitutional power away from elected col. Reps and toward nonelected royal officials
Revenue Act never yielded desired $
Only tea produced significant revenue- but had to keep tea affordable
Therefore, RA worsened British treasury’s deficit
From Parl’s standpoint, conflict w/ America was becoming test of national will over principle of taxation
The Colonists’ Reaction, 1767-1769
Colonists
Resistance to Revenue Act remained weak until Dec 1767 when John Dickinson published 12 essays – Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania
Said that Parl. had no right to tax commerce for single purpose of raising revenue
Legality of external tax depended on its intent
Persuaded many that arguments ppl had vs. stamp act also applied to revenue act
James Otis – Boston lawyer famed for arguments in writs-of-assistance case
Chaired Boston town meeting that asked Massachusetts legislature to oppose the Townshend duties
In response, assembly called on Samuel Adams to draft a “circular letter” to every colonial legis in 1768
Letter condemned taxation w/o representation
And threat to self-governance posed by parl’s making governors and other royal officers financially independent of legislatures
But it acknowledge Parl. as “supreme legislative Power over the whole Empire”
Advocated no illegal activities
Virginia’s assembly greatly approved of Adam’s letter and sent out even stronger letter of own urging colonies to oppose imperial policies
h/e most colonial legis responded indifferently
in fact, resistance to Rev Act might have died out if Brit govt hadn’t overreacted to circular letters
Eng’s Response
Parl regarded letters as incentive to rebellion
King’s Privy Council appointed Lord Hillsborough as secretary of state for colonies to express govt’s displeasure
Told Mass to disown letter, forbade other colonies to endorse it
Commanded governors to dissolve any legis that violated instructions
What Colonists did…
To protest Hillsborough, many colonies orig indiff to Mass letter now adopted it enthusiastically
Governors dismissed legislatures
Colonists wonder how they can pressure Parl. to repeal R.A.?
Nonimportation – would distress Brit’s econ
Boston’s merchants adopted nonimportation agreement
Not all colonists supported tho
Effectiveness depended on compliance of merchants
Merchants in some major cities kept buying Brit goods
Boycott more signif. in long run b/c made colonists more active in resisting Brit. Policies
“Wilkes and Liberty,” 1768-1770
Britain is affected by nonimportation policy
Want repeal of Townsend duties
Low wages and high prices
Movement in 1760’s opposing domestic and foreign policies of George III and Parliament dominated by wealthy landowners
John Wilkes
Editor and parliament member
Newspaper expressed opposition to George III’s policies
Government arrests him for libel
He wins his case
But his newspaper is shut down and House of Commons is persuaded to deny him a seat
He offends government more and flees to paris
Comes back in 1768
Townsend acts have people in protests
People rally around Wilkes
Wilkes elected to Parliament
Arrested
“Wilkesites” protest on St. George’s Fields outside prison where Wilkes is kept
Some people start throwing stones
Soldiers and police fire
11 killed
Called “massacre of St. George’s Fields”
Wilkes and an associate elected to Parliament 2 more times and denied seats
Imprisoned Wilkes gets a lot of popular support from colonies
In correspondence w/ Boston Sons of Liberty
People in Britain and colonies pulled into politics
English cities and towns sign petitions protesting Parliament’s refusal to give Wilkes a seat
Think “virtual representation” is a sham
Say refusing seat is affront to electorate’s will
Society of the Supporters of the Bill of Rights
Formed to protect constitutional liberties of subjects
Respectable opponents of government (Endmund Burke, William Pitt…) say Wilkes shouldn’t deal in the “mob”
Wilkes and his following make clear that parliament is a minority w/ too much power that could be legitimately questioned
Women and Colonial Resistance
Key to nonimportation policy is showing Britain and colonies that people can sustain resistance and that their cause rested on moderation, morality, and self sacrifice
White women had been slowly and unevenly getting more influence in politics
In churches they outnumbered men
Seen as examples of piety and morality
Wealthy women make Daughters of Liberty
Play minor role in defeating the stamp act
Also start to express ideas of opposition in discussions and correspondences
During Townsend crisis, women have bigger role
Tea
Take on nonconsumption policy
Women drink most tea of anyone
Hurts ability of Townsend duties to make money
Clothing
Women encouraged to make own clothes for families
Don’t have to buy British ones
Have spinning bees
Forego idleness for liberty
Gives regular household chores, like spinning, a political significance
Feminine virtues prove to expand beyond religious piety
Women participation shows that colonial protest is more widespread
Customs “Racketeering,” 1767-1768
Townshend wanted to increase revenues through strict enforcement of Navigation Acts à submitted Revenue Act of 1767
Introduced legislation – created American Board of Customs Commissioners
Funded various job positions
Fines created more incentive for illegal smuggling
Probability of conviction was high
Wanted to spread this system to colonies
There were protests because of unjust law enforcements (guilty until proven innocent)
No evidence existed but charges were filed
Revenue agents started abusing their powers (i.e. going against traditional sailor’s rights to seize ship)
“Customs racketeering”
Retaliation
Pennsylvania Journal scorned agents as dogs of prey, going after fortune
Agents were despised everywhere
Boston à most hated
Citizens retaliated
John Hancock became chief target of customs commissioners
Was leading opponent of British taxation
Was fined 13x as much as he allegedly evaded on a shipment of wine
Citizens tried to prevent towing of Hancock’s ship – began assault on agents
Mob drove inspectors from Boston
Added to friction between Britain and colonies
The Deepening Crisis, 1770-1774
Colonists argued that acts (i.e. Sugar Act) endangered property rights and civil liberties
Rejection of taxation without representation expanded into rejection of legislation without representation
Later à Parliament had no lawmaking authority over colonies except right to regulate imperial commerce (Navigation Acts)
British reaction to Hancock’s case à dispatched British troops to Boston
Bostonians resented troops – felt that troops threatened liberty and were financial burden
The Boston Massacre, 1770
- Boston was filled with tension à soldiers generated anger
- February 22, 1770 à customs informer shot into a crowd picketing the home of a customs-paying merchant – killed a young boy
o His death unified community – large funeral held
- Army had no part in shooting but it became target
- Cripus Attucks and George Robert Twelves Hewes
o Led crowd against troops to guard post protecting customs office
o Officer tried to disperse citizens – threatened to shoot
o Soldiers fired
- Shock that followed was climax of Townshend crisis
- Royal authorities in Massachusetts tried to settle the problem
o Isolated all British soldiers on an island
o Governor Thomas Hutchinson promised that soldiers who shot would be tried
§ John Adams was their attorney
o Most soldiers were acquitted and those who were guilty suffered light punishment
- Colonists were afraid that British government was going to suppress them through force
Lord North’s Partial Retreat, 1770
New British prime minister: Lord North
Worked to stabilize relations between Britain and colonies
Favored eliminating most of Townshend duties to prevent boycott from widening
Insisted on retaining tax on tea
Parliament agreed – repealed most of T. duties
Parliament’s partial repeal produced problem for American politicians
Considered it intolerable that taxes remained on tea (most profitable item)
Colonists resisted external taxation – didn’t drink tea
Didn’t make a profit to pay salaries of royal governors
British government took steps to control American Board of Customs Commissioners
Dropped charges on Hancock
The Committees of Correspondence, 1772-1773
Lord North’s ministry was preparing to implement Townshend’s goal of paying royal governor’s salaries out of customs revenue
Colonists saw this as threat to representative government
Samuel Adams requested that every Massachusetts community appoint people to various jobs to protect colonial rights
Called Committees of Correspondence
Ideas spread
COCs were colonists’ first attempt to maintain close political cooperation over wide area
Enabled Adams to send out messages easily
Adam publicized certain letters of Hutchinson that Franklin had obtained
Found out that chief executive advocated restriction of natural liberty
Some colonists wanted to destroy basic freedoms
Patrick Henry, Thomas Jefferson, and Richard Henry Lee proposed that Virginia establish colony-level COCs
Network of leaders was created throughout colonies
Dissatisfaction (caused by i.e. Townshend duties) created more friction between Britain and colonies
Felt that British authority threatened liberty and virtue
Backcountry Tensions
Tensions in the west – contributed to ongoing sense of crisis among Indians, settlers and colonial authorities.
Rapid growth – spurred migration and capitol to Appalachian backcountry
Where colonists and gov’t sought access to Indian land
British gov’t helpless in enforcing Proclamation of 1763 – land pressures and inadequate revenue from colonists.
Speculators (ex. GW) – sought western land to seize opportunity before it is lost.
Settlers, traders, hunters, thieves – trespassed on Indian land
Violence by colonists towards Indians – unpunished
British gov’t = unable to maintain garrisons at many forts
Garrisons à enforce violations of laws and treaties; provide gifts to allies.
Treaty of Fort Stanwix (1768)
Britain and Six Nations Iroquois
Grant land along Ohio River that was occupied and claimed by Shawnees, Delawares, and Cherokees to governments of Pennsylvania and VA.
Shawnees = assume leadership of Ohio Indians
Sensed that no policy such as this would stop colonial expansion.
Treaty = heightened western tensions
Ohio country à settlers agitated to establish Kentucky
Violence culminates (1774)
Slaughter of 13 Shawnees and Mingos, including 8 Logans à leading Mingo family
Outraged Logan – leads force that kills 13 white Virginians
VA – campaign against the Indians
Lord Dunmore’s War (1774)
Colony’s governor
Conflict at Point Pleasant (VA side of the Ohio River)
English victory
Peace conference – VA gets rights to lands south of Ohio river and gave up claims on northern side.
Anglo-Indian resentments continue
Some conflicts with Indians led to conflicts within colonists
Colonists moving west in MA were challenged by NY landlords
1766 – 2 landlords threaten to evict tenants
New Englanders aide in armed uprising – Sons of Liberty (after Stamp Act protesters)
1769 00 New Hampshire vs. NY à 4 years of guerilla warfare
NH settlers (“Green Mountain Boys”) – establish independent gov’t.
Eventually became gov’t of Vermont
More NE settlers à settle in PA and clash there.
Backcountry Settlers vs. Colonial Governments
NC – Regulators aimed to redress the grievances of westerners who were under-represented in the colonial assembly and exploited by dishonest eastern officeholders.
May 16, 1771 – Battle of Alamance Creek
NC’s royal governor defeats Regulators – 300 casualties
Movement results in colony’s crippled ability to resist British authority.
Armed Regulator movement in SC – counter government’s unwillingness to prosecute bandits.
Gov’t not want to dispatch militia à fear of slave uprising
Conceded to demands à establish 4 new judicial circuits and allow jury trials
Tea Act, 1773
Colonial smuggling and nonconsumption = heavy toll on British East India Company
Legal monopoly on the sale of tea in Britain’s Empire
1773 – on brink of bankruptcy
Lord North – cannot afford to lose company
Maid substantial duties on shipped tea
Provided indirect savings for government by maintaining British authority in India.
Want to control colonial market – increase profits
1773 – colonies only purchasing ¼ of the million lbs they consume a year from the BEIC.
May 1773 – Tea Act
Lowered selling prices by eliminating import duties on tea entering England.
Permitted the company to sell directly to consumers, rather than to wholesalers
Price now well below that of smuggled competition
Alarmed many Americans:
Menace to liberty and virtue and colonial representative government
Raises revenue, which is used to pay royal governors
Corrupt Americans into accepting parliamentary taxation by exploiting weakness for luxury
Committees of correspondence – peaceful resistance of tea imports
Kept cargoes from landing – persuasion, interception, etc.
Boston – failed
Boston Tea Party
November 28, 1773 – first ship under jurisdiction of the customhouse came.
Duties would have to be paid within 20 days, or cargo would be seized
Sam Adams and John Hancock repeatedly asked the customs office to issue a clearance of the ship’s departure, but they wouldn’t à Thomas Hutchinson’s refusal to compromise
December 16 – 5,000 Bostonians gather in Old South Church
Sam Adams informs citizens of Hutchinson’s insistence on landing the tea
50 young men (including George Robert Twelves Hewes) disguised themselves as Mohawk Indians
Symbolizes a virtuous, proud American identity separate from that of Britain.
Armed with tomahawks
Assaulted no one, only damaged the cargo à heaved 45 tons of tea overboard while thousands looked on.
Quiet the whole time à “never more still or calm”
Toward Independence, 1774-1776
Liberty for Black Americans
The Coercive Acts
The First Continental Congress
(fyi – I didn’t include the ppl there b/c a lot, so see p. 151 if think is necessary)
Sept. 5, 1774- In response to the “Intolerable Acts”, the extralegal committees of correspondence of every colony but Georgia sent delegates to a Continental Congress in Philadelphia
Delegates came together to find way of defending colonies’ rights in common
First Continental Congress opened by endorsing set of statements of principle called the Suffolk Resolves that had recently placed Mass in a state of passive rebellion. Resolves decl that:
Colonies owed no obedience to any of Coercive Acts
Provisional govt should collect taxes until former Mass charter was restored
Defensive measures should be taken in event of attack by royal troops
Continental Association- agreement in which FCC voted to boycott brit goods and to cease exporting almost all goods to Brit + W Indies unless reconciliation accomplished
Bold defiance not liked by all delegates
Moderates feared internal turmoil that would accompany confrontation w/ Britain
These “trimmers” opposed nonimportation and tried to endorse plan for a “Grand Council”- an American legis that would share authority to tax and govern colonies w/ Parl. – didn’t work
Finally, delegates summarized principles/demands in petition to king
Affirmed Parl’s power to regulate imperial commerce, but argued that Parl’s previous efforts to impose taxes, enforce laws thru admiralty courts, suspend assemblies, and revoke charters were unconstitutional
By addressing king rather than Parl, congress was imploring George III to end crisis by dismissing ministers who passed Coercive Acts
From Resistance to Rebellion
Most Americans hoped their resistance would jolt parl. into renouncing all authority over colonies except trade regulation
But tensions between moderates and radicals ran high
To solidify their defiance, colonial resistance leaders coerced waverers and loyalists (Tories) – got merchants to stop importing Brit goods etc.
By 1775, colonial patriots had established provincial “congresses” that paralleled and rivaled the existing colonial assemblies headed by royal governors
Britain answered colonies’ challenge in Mass in April 1775:
In Mass, colonists had organized extralegal milita units (minutemen) prepared vs. possible brit attack
Brit govt ordered Mass’s Governor Gage to arrest principal patriot leaders
Gage sent Brit soldiers to take colonists’ mil. supplies stored at Concord
William Dawes and Paul Revere warned of approaching Brits
Concord- 273 Brit deaths, 92 colonists
Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia
Most delegates still opposed independence and at Dickinson’s urging agreed to send “loyal message” to George III (Olive Branch Petition)
Olive Branch Petition
Politely presented 3 demands:
A cease-fire at Boston
Repeal of Coercive Acts
Negotiations to estab. guarantees of American rights
While pleading for peace, also passed measures brits saw as rebellious
E.g., voted to estab. an “American Continental Army” – appt George Washington as commander
In London,
News of Olive Branch Petition, Continental Army’s Formation, and battles at Breed’s Hill and Bunker Hill – great Brit casualties
After Bunker hill, many brits wanted retaliation
Aug, George III proclaimed New England in state of rebellion à Oct, extended to all colonies
Dec, Parl decl. colonies rebellious, outlawing all Brit trade w/ them, subjecting their ships to seizure
Common Sense
Many colonists clung to hopes of reconciliation
Also clung to notion that evil ministers rather than king were forcing unconstitutional measures on them and that saner heads would rise to power in Brit. à wrong!
When George III decl. colonies in rebellion, Anglo-Americans had to either submit or to acknowledge their goal of national independence
Thomas Paine’s Common Sense
Monarchy was an institution rooted in superstition, dangerous to liberty, and inappropriate to Americans
America had no econ. need for Brit connection
Events or preceding 6 months had made independence a reality
Linked America’s awakening nationalism with the sense of religious mission felt by many New Englanders
America would be new kind of nation, a model society founded on republican principles and unburdened by the oppressive beliefs/corrupt institutions of European past
Common Sense dissolved lingering allegiance to George III and Great Britain, removing the last psychological barrier to Amer independence
Declaring Independence
Common Sense stimulates local gatherings
Extralegal legislatures declare independence from Britain
July 2,1776- Congress created the United States of America
Committee put together to draft statement of independence
Benjamin Franklin
John Adams
Thomas Jefferson (principal author)
Enlightenment
John Locke’s ideas
Natural rights
Social contract
If government not protecting natural rightsà tyrannical
People have right to overthrow
Pursuit of Happiness—progress
Changes:
Pursuit of happiness—replaces “property”
Happiness determined by an individual basis
Government is there to facilitate each person’s own pursuits
delete statement blaming George III for forcing slavery on colonies
Move focus off of wanting representation—want an outright split
List 27 “injuries and usurpations” committed by George III against colonies
Focus less on individual politicians
Recognize that Parliament and King have become too tyrannical
Say that Britain has violated social contract
Colonies have a right to replace him w/ their own government
Emphasis on equality and natural entitlement to justice, liberty, and self-fulfillment based not on exploitation or legal privilege
Make the statement that George III’s rule as tyrannical
Have to prove it
Charges
Changing locations of legislaturesà move things to Nova Scotia
Dissolve representative governmentsà House of Burgesses is dissolved; dissolve Massachusetts government
Preventing immigration and expansionà Proclamation of 1763
Administration of justiceà vice-admiralty courts
New offices/swarms of officersà Quartering Act
“our constitution”à British constitution, not a written document- evolutionary; say Britain isn’t following it any more
Abolishing free system of English laws in Quebecà Quebec act; no representative government in Quebec; Britain supporting Catholics in Quebec
Whig ideology—government closest to you governs best
Elements of Great Awakening it Declaration
“protection of Divine Providence”
Active presence of God= Great Awakening
“endowed by creator”
God left colonies to themselves= enlightenment
Taking back rights—“ full power to levy war…and do all other acts and things which independent states may of right do”
Not a question of just taking back what Britain took from colonies
Say that the way Britain took back powers from colonies makes Britain a tyrant
b/c Britain is tyrantàsplit
Declaration also addresses people unsure about splitting from Britain
Wants to convince people that social and political progress can’t happen under the British
Also addresses people from other countries
Know they’ll need allies
That’s why their allegations are trying to make a case
Some important things not clarified
Equality of slaves/free blacks
Equality of women
Equality of native Americans
Declaration of Independence by Continental Congress makes it something greater
Moves colonists to political action
Hastens struggle for independence
Challenges people to make equality and perfect justice more of a reality by splitting w/ Britain
Revolution
Revolution: A FUNDAMENTAL change
Is the revolutionary war the American Revolution?
Does the military fighting equal the fundamental change?
Not really a change—they want to keep what they’ve got
In a sense, the British are the revolutionaries, and the colonies are the conservatives
Britain is changing from limited monarchy to unlimited monarchy
George III is changing things
Are the colonies a democracy?
Not really, many people are excluded—women, slaves, non-landowners
Education and property ownership were types of qualifications
People don’t like the idea of democracy
Associated with mob rule—Sons of Liberty, Boston Tea Party
Never mentioned in the constitution
States determine who can vote
Suffrage is not a natural right
States determine the manner of elections
Benjamin Franklin proposed self-governance under the crown
Dominion of North America
Own prime minister etc.
American revolution is about liberty and right to participate
Fundamental change goes with fundamental conservatism in maintaining things the way they were in the colonies
Some people in Parliament are also saying that colonies should be let go
Wilberforce
Burke
Notes Chapter 4
Chapter 4: The Bonds of Empire: 1660-1750
Questions
Pg 89-94: How do royal policies change over the period of 1660-1700? What was the effect of the Glorious Revolution?
95-109: How did colonial society shift as a result of Britain’s mercantilistic policies? How did political change accompany social change?
114-120: What were the Great Awakening and the Enlightenment? Why did they occur at roughtly the same time? What effects did they have on colonial life? Were they mutually supportive or mutually hostile?
109-114, 125-127: What overall effect did Britain’s global commercial was have on the development of the British American colonies? How was the French and Indian War especially significant?
Chapter Questions:
How did the Glorious Revolution and its outcome shape relations between England and its North American colonies?
What were the most important consequences of British mercantilism for the mainland colonies?
What factors best explain the relative strengths of British, French, and Spanish colonial empires in North America?
What were the most significant consequences of the Enlightenment and the Great Awakening for life in the British colonies?
Changes and Themes
About a century after initial settlement
New trade policies + diversity etc
A new identity comes about
People aren’t so much British but are now American
American Culture
Class System
No nobility
Everybody is potentially middle class
No aristocracy
Aristocrats are hereditary inheritants of land in England
In America, anybody can be a land owner
They have people of different incomes and station, but not class
People have every opportunity to make their own way up
Individualism—everybody has a shot
Rights
Europeans say you have rights because you belong to a certain group
Americans think there are rights regardless of groups/class
Social mobility
You can make yourself as successful as you want
Competitive and opportunistic
Inventiveness—people are more creative
Exceptionalism
Americans have a sense that they are different/better
Believe that they are truly unique
“city on a hill”
Some people think they are savage b/c they don’t follow traditional civil rules
Americans think they don’t have to follow these rules
Heterogeneous not homogenous society
Diversity
American doesn’t necessarily refer to a certain race or culture b/c America is so diverse and yet all American
Philadelphia
· Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Paine living in 1700s
o Thomas Paine
§ Writes Common Sense: talks about individual rights and social contract
§ Writes the Crisis: at the height of the American Revolution he tells them not to give up
o Both are publishers
· Thomas Paine
o Immigrant (vs. born in America)
o Comes to America, has a big effect, leaves America, goes to France
§ He is defining, expressing, and describing an American life
§ As American as Franklin
o Publicist- writes pamphlets about the American identity
§ Asks about whether or not English rule can work with this identity
· Benjamin Franklin
o Born in Boston
§ Has to leave b/c economy in Boston isn’t that great in 1720s
· Too far away from ship trade
§ His family had a lot of kids so he left to make his own way
· Goes to Philadelphia
o Making his way in Philadelphia and does really well
§ Retires early
§ Can work on inventions and such
§ Makes his money as a printer
· Poor Richard’s Almanac (self help book)
· Pennsylvania Gazette
§ Starts first fire insurance company
· Journalists trained to ask: “where’s the fire”
· Goes to fire site and sells them insurance
o He knows there is a reason to regard the colonies as a single entity
§ Looks at differences between Americans and British
§ Talking about problems that are uniquely American
· But, most of his life up to 30 was spent outside the country
· 1750s to mid 1760s he was doing Pennsylvania’s business in England (parliament)
o Colony’s ambassador to France
o Europeans who meet him use as a mental picture of an American
§ Give him honorary degrees from oxford and St. Andrewsà Dr. Franklin
o He is the visual contact of America
§ He knows it
§ Can make himself seem like a classy European or a common American Puritan/Quaker
· He is neither
· He attends a Presbyterian Church but isn’t that either
· He’s a Deist- religion of enlightenment philosophers: has no revelation and no creed
· Believes in just, ethical, supreme being who stays out of things
· Basic religious sense of ethics and justice
· Rational but ethical
· Shows up in church b/c he thinks religion has a good effect on American life
§ Comes back just in time for Constitutional Convention
Glorious Revolution
Monarchyà civil warà republicà monarchy (Charles II and James II)
Charles good at getting along with Parliament
Subtle Catholic
James has blatant disrespect for laws
Openly catholic
Has 2 Anglican daughters who people hope will take throne after him
Marries again and has a son—catholic
Policy
Both sons like to consolidate
Power
Communications of command
James= manager of colonial policy
Revokes charters of all colonies in New England
No more town meetings, general court, governor…
Form Dominion of New England
Incorporates New England + New York and New Jersey
Best way to consolidate power is to fuse together New England and Dutch conquered lands
Wants to reinstitute royal absolutism
Like French
Ignores English history and tradition
England has gone through a lot of different governments
Stuarts don’t learn that
Edmund Andros
Appointed to run the Dominion of New England
When James’ son is born leaders in England get rid of James
Invite William and Mary from Netherlands to come run England
Mary= one of James’ protestant daughters
James is chased out without bloodshed
Called Glorious Revolution
Glorious Revolution
Intellectual basis
Base revolution on political philosophies of John Locke
Natural rights: life, liberty, property
Born with these rights
Rights supposed to be protected by government
Society has made a social contract that gives power to government
That way government can protect rights
If rulers break social contract, they can be thrown out
Born unadorned
Your experiences make you who you are
Tabula raza= blank slate
American experience
Retains continuity
Still monarchy
Conditions for William and Mary is that they sign Bill of Rights
Bill of Rights
Have to consult Parliament
MUST be summoned
Permanent legislative
House of Commons officially get the “power of the purse”
In order to vote/take office you have to take communion in Church of England
Way of excluding Catholics and keeping them out of office
King can’t be catholic
Religious toleration laws though
There will be no standing army in peace time
Kings can’t impose military on people
Navy is excluded
In colonies, military presence is absent
Didn’t have money for it anyway
Colonies are militarily on their own
Reaffirmations of basic rights—“rights of Englishmen”
Due process of law
Jury of peers
Know charges against you
Habeaus corpus
Representation by lawyer
Right to a trial
See witnesses and cross examination
Tries to put all rights in writing
#s 4-8 of American Bill of Rights are originally from English Bill of Rights
Glorious Revolution in Colonies
Reversal of James II’s acts by Parliament/King William (crown and parliament have to go together)
Assemblies come back—town meetings
Dominion of England taken apart
Redo charters
Plymouth becomes part of Massachusetts
West Jersey and East Jersey put together
Assemblies
Electorate voting and running for office based on property ownership
Even in New England now
Vested interest- you have something to gain or lose
If you are voting for a representative who gets to vote on things that affect you
Property laws for example
If you don’t have any property to be taken away, you won’t understand the law
Mostly wealthy people do it- you have to be able to afford to live in county center
You don’t get paid for being in the legislature
It’s a duty, not a job
Domination of one idea over another
Tory= pro monarchy
Established church
Sympathize w/ French
Want strong central governmentà gives London power
People close to the king have power
“court party”
Whig= pro- parliament
Protestant pluralism
Sympathize w/ Dutchà anti-French
Want parliamentà representativeà decentralized power
“country party”
People’s country isn’t Britain
It’s their community
Believe liberties are best protected at local level
Best protected by people who know you
Representatives who can better speak for you
People are getting the idea that representative government is betterà rising “Whig ideology/outlook”
People realize they like government less royally centered
Proto- republicans
Whigs are in charge of government in England
Still forcing changes from top down from London onto colonies
Religious policy passed from England
Charters
Colonies still have no say in that
To colonists the whigs in London sound in tories
Whigs might be better defined as people who don’t have the power
Once you get the power you become like the Tories
That’s why US government has things get renewed—prevent so many tories
Colonies need to be linked with England though
England needs to keep authority from top down b/c when Britain goes to war the colonies of Britain and their enemies also go to war
Colonies have a certain political understanding
Glorious Revolution confirms it but also says that colonies have to answer to authority in London
Trade
Nothing has changed on trade—Navigation Acts
Goods have to be routed through London so they can get their tax, even if start and end locations are in colonies
Army
Colonial militias, not organized army
No British troops in colonies
French-Indian war needs military later
Britain troops aren’t voluntary
Press gang—take negligent people and kidnap them to army
Take people from jails too
Officers buy their commission
You buy your way up
Changes
Government policies that puts rules in place but sees that it’s not good to enforce them all the time= Salutary Neglect
Can’t arrest everybody
Only focus on important things
Show you’re in charge but that you have better things to do than chaperone all the time
Sometimes it’s more profitable to allow illegal things to go on
Bribery
As a result, smuggling and trade within colonies goes on
If Britain ever reverses that stance, colonies will get angry
Colonies are responding to a need to connect more effectively
Shipping lanes
Beginning of a road system
Clear idea of how to get from place to place
Called “post road”
Before there was only a loose network of Indian trails
Knit them together
Beginnings of east/west highway between colonial networks
North/south highways too
Movement and correspondence between colonies
Postal system
Ask crown to name someone in charge of post system (roads etc)—postmaster general
Appoint Benjamin Franklin
Immigration
Affects colonial economic scene
Natural increase + burst of immigrants
Africans 1/5 colonials is of African origins
Germans
Mostly religious minorities—pacifists
Penn likes them
Called “Pennsylvania Dutch”
Live in cities and frontier of Pennsylvania
Good at growing things
Germany becomes 2nd most popular language
Movement to make Germany official language
West Germany mostly
English
Scots
Scots Irish
Scottish transported to northern Ireland for fertile land
Land isn’t good enough
Protestant
Irish
Some Catholics, but mostly Protestant
Differences in wealth
English more wealthy than Irish, Scots Irish, Scots
Get exploited by the English
English immigrants decreasing some
Better economy in Britain
Resentment against Britain
Scots, Scots Irish, and Scots are unhappy that even in America English have the power
Resentment continues into America
Groups go into the background and become more radical
Don’t like power structure
Slavery issue
Great Awakening
Opposed to Puritanism
Puritans have predestination
Now they can repent and be saved
Treats people with dignityà anti-slavery
Enlightenment
About logic—it is hard to unite enlightenment with slavery
On one hand, slavery denies the natural rights of slaves and puts them into a social contract that does not honor those rights
On other hand, social contract based on the preservation of property and slaves are considered property
So, you can be pro enlightenment and anti slavery
You need a new reason for supporting anti-slavery though
You are anti-slavery because it is unreasonable, not because it’s a sin
It doesn’t make sense to do bad things
Two opposing movements but they do agree on certain issues
Only support things for different reasons
Rebellion and War, 1660-1713
English make an effort to expand overseas trade at expense of their rivals
Subordinate colonies to English commercial interests and political authority
Royal Centralization, 1660-1688
James II and Charles II are sons of Charles I, who was executed by Parliament
They distrust representative government
Charles doesn’t call parliament
James wants to have absolute rule without facing an elected legislature
Don’t like colonial assemblies
New York has most direct political control by royals
James II is Duke of York
Forbids assemblies to meet except for a short period of time
Charles appoints former army officers to 90 % of posts
Against English tradition of only having military in charge of civil authority
“governors general” is what they are called
New Englanders are resentful of meddling
Massachusetts declares citizens exempt from royal decrees and laws except for a declaration of war
Ignore navigation acts
Charles targets Massachusetts
Takes some land from it to make New Hampshire
Revokes its charter and makes it a royal colony
When James II becomes king he makes Dominion of New England
Combines Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Plymouth into one administrative unit
New York and New Jersey later added
Legislatures in colonies cease to exist
Sir Edmund Andros becomes governor of Dominion
Massachusetts hates Andros
He suppresses legislature
Allows only one annual meeting
Enforced toleration of Anglicans and Navigation acts
Puts some elites in high office
In New York Catholics have prominent political and military posts
People worried that they would betray NY to France
The Glorious Revolution in England and America, 1688-1689
Colonists become scared as James II and Charles II turn catholic
James converts and Charles converts on his deathbed
People get even more worried when they show signs of allying England with France, which had begun to persecute Protestant Huguenots
English only tolerated James II’s Catholicism because they thought his Anglican daughters would inherit the throne
When he has a son, who rules as a Catholic, some religious and political leaders ask Mary and husband William of Orange (leader of Dutch Republic) to take throne
Lead Dutch army to England in November 1688
Royal troops defect
James II flees to France
Called the Glorious Revolution- bloodless
New crown agrees to
Summon Parliament annually
Sing all parliament’s bills
Respect traditional civil liberties
Colonies also move towards revolution
New England
Before finding out about the success of the Glorious Rev, Boston’s militia arrests Andros and his councilors
Act in the name of William and Mary
William and Mary dismantle Dominion of New England
Restore power to elected governors of Connecticut and Rhode Island
Retain Massachusetts as royal colony
Let it have Plymouth and Maine but not New Hampshire
Crown rather than electorate would appoint governor
Landownership, not church ownership becomes voting criteria
They had to start tolerating other Christians (whose taxes would still go to their congregation)
New York
Leisler’s Rebellion
City’s militia, led by Captain Jacob Leisler, take command of harbor’s main fort
Repair defenses
Call for elections for assembly
Don’t let English troops into key fortsà skirmish
Leisler arrested and charged with treason
He had arrested a lot of elites who rejected his authority
They had talked to new governor and got him convicted for firing on royal troops
Leisler and son-in-law sent to gallows
Maryland
Message from Lord Baltimore saying to obey William and Mary gets lost when messenger dies in passage
Hoped message would prevent any uprisings
Protestants fear Lord Baltimore supports James II secretly
John Cood and 3 others make Protestant Association and try to secure Maryland for William and Mary
Possibly more of a result of the fact that they resented being excluded from high public office b/c ¾ had Catholic wives
Seize capital and get Catholics out of office
Request royal governor
Get governor in 1691
Make Church of England established religion
Catholics can’t worship publicly and can’t vote
Remains a royal colony until 4th Lord Baltimore gets it back by entering Church of England
Important Change
Reestablishes legislative government and religious freedom for Protestants
William and Mary get rid f Dominion
Hand power over to elites, which they trust to follow interests of England
Makes system of allegiance voluntary rather than raw power imposed from far away
Americans have rising confidence from relationship with English throne
A Generation of War, 1689-1713
King William’s War
England joins a coalition against France’s Louis XIV, who supported James II’s claim to throne
War of League of Augsburg or King William’s War
New Yorkers and New Englanders launch attack
Attack Montréal
Attack Quebec
Both invasions fail
Fighting becomes violent inconclusive border raids by both sides and their Indian allies
Five nations Iroquois Confederacy bears most of bloodshed
Almost alone against enemies: pro-French Indians go from Maine to Great lakes
English armies often fail to intercept enemies
Many Iroquois die
By 1700 Iroquois are divided into pro-English, pro-French, and neutralists
Neutralists try diplomacy
Make treaty called Grand Settlement of 1701
Makes peace w/ France and its Indian allies in exchange for access to western furs
Redefines alliances with England to exclude military commitments
Allows them to keep control of land, rebuild population, and gain recognition as a power in Northeast
War of Spanish Succession/Queen Anne’s War
Reinforces Anglo-American’s sense of military weakness
French destroy several newly built towns
Anglo-Spanish war extends old conflicts between New Spain and the Carolinas
Almost take Charles Town in 1706
Launch coastal raids and looting parties
Colonies siege Quebec and St. Augustineà expensive failures
English forces do a better than the colonists
Take Hudson bay , Newfoundland, and Acadia (Nova Scotia)
But, French and Indian hold is still unbroken in interior
Consequences are important politically
Establishes Anglo-Americans as people of Protestantism and liberty
But they realize that they are still dependent on the UK for protection
War buttresses their loyalty to the crown
Colonial Economies and Societies, 1660-1750
- Britain, France, and Spain were economic rivals – used N.A.
o Wanted to integrate colonies into single imperial economies
Mercantilist Empires in America
o Britain, France and Spain were rooted in mercantilism – self-sufficiency (exporting more than importing)
o Britain’s mercantilist policies were summarized in Navigation Acts – governed commerce between England and its colonies
§ Colonial trade be carried on English or colonial owned vessels
§ Prohibited trade to countries other than England
§ Molasses Act of 1733 – taxed foreign molasses entering mainland colonies
· Served as tariff
o Effects of Navigation Acts
§ 1) Limited all imperial trade to English ships who crews were mostly English
· Laid foundations for American shipbuilding industry and merchant marine
· Swift growth of merchant marine – made northern colonial economy more commercial
· Created centralized docks, warehouses, and repair shops in colonies
§ 2) Barring exports of certain “enumerated goods” to foreign nations unless items passed through England or Scotland
· Enumerated goods = tobacco, rice, furs, indigo, etc.
· Parliament reduced burdens on exporters
o Gave tobacco growers a monopoly over British market by excluding foreign tobacco
o Minimized added cost of landing tobacco and rice in Britain by refunding customs duties when products were later shipped to other countries
§ 3) Encourage economic diversification
· Parliament used British tax revenues to pay bounties to Americans producing goods
· Raised price of commercial rivals’ imports by imposing tariffs
· Colonists produced clothing and iron
§ 4) Made colonies a protected market for low-priced consumer goods and other exports from Britain
· Demand for colonial products led to prosperity – enabled colonists to consume larger amounts of other goods
· Shops sprang up
· Itinerant peddlers traveled to more remote areas
o 1760s à Consumer Revolution
§ Increase in consumer buying and selling (contributed to exports from 5% to 40%)
o Imported goods enabled middle class colonists to mimic lifestyles of British
§ Popular import à tea
o Economic development of French and Spanish was nothing compared to that of British colonies
o France
§ France’s most forceful proponent of mercantilism – Colbert
§ Had difficulty implementing mercantilist policies
· New France eventually developed economic self-sufficiency
· Chief imports: wine and brandy; chief export: furs (expanded fur trade)
§ France maintained army in Canada – drained royal treasury
§ French Canadians lacked private investment, extensive commercial infrastructure vast consumer market, and manufacturing capacity of British
§ France’s greatest American success – French planters emulated English by importing large numbers of African slaves to produce sugar
· French planters defied some mercantilist policies
o French sugar planters made own molasses rather than shipping raw sugar off to France to be refined
o Spain
§ Spain spent wealth of gold and silver
· Economy revived (but not in N.A.)
· Spanish colonies didn’t really have overseas commerce
§ Spanish traded with Louisiana, British, French, and Indian allies
o England became mercantile-commercial economy
§ Strengthened navy to protect trade
§ Benefits also affected British colonies as well (Parliament intended for only Britain to benefit)
Immigration, Population Growth, and Diversity
British have most people in North America—gives them an advantage over Spain and Britain
Spain
Usually immigrants go to South America, not New Mexico, Texas, or Florida
Limits immigration to Catholicsà protestants go to British America
Sees North American colonies more as buffers for protecting South America from English and French
Rely on soldiers in presidios (forts) and strategically placed missions that would convert Indians for defense
France
Canada and Louisiana don’t sound very appealing b/c of harsh winters and poor economy
Limits immigration to Catholics
French immigration suffers
Mostly criminals and paupers get sent there
Some colonies made in Missouri and Upper Louisiana
Military prominent while missionaries and traders work with Native Americans
English colonies
Have good farmland, healthy economy, and a willingness to absorb most European religions (except Catholicism)
Population growth is more from natural increase than immigration
More slaves start coming over
Coming to America
Some traders deliberately mix many cultures on a ship to prevent rebellion
Some chose slaves from certain regions for their rice growing experience
Passage over is cramped and disease ridden
Many die or try to jump overboard
Slave population doubles
Primarily a southern institution but still slaves in north
5% of all slaves are going to US
Colonists couldn’t afford as many male slaves as they wanted so they bought women and preserved their health
Start up family units
Better life expectancy for slaves than in Caribbean
Creole Slaves (American-born slaves)
Have advantages over African-born blacks
Familiar with environment, culture, and way of their masters
Do less hard labor and more housework
African born slaves go to new settlements to do heavy labor
Immigration
Not as many English are coming over
Wages and employment had risen in Englandà less people need to come
But, still hardships in British Isles and northern Europeà immigration
Results in diversity
Many are Scots-Irish
Scottish Presbyterians whose ancestors settled in Ireland to escape rack renting (sharp frequent increases in farm rents)
Immigrate in complete families
Catholic Irish immigrants come over single but can’t find many Catholic women
Change to Protestant to take a wife
Work as indentured servants
German
Escaping economic hardships in wartime Rhine Valley
Squeezed onto plots of land too small to support and feed a family
Come over by indenturing themselves or the family
Most Lutheran or Calvinist and some pacifist religions
Immigrants are poor
Mostly indentured servants who could face brutal conditions
A lot of people come to Philadelphia and Piedmont
Germans in upper NY
Scots Irish and Germans in go south from Pennsylvania and into Maryland
Germans and Irish into Charles Town
Outpouring of people, including immigrants, from Chesapeake into North Carolina
Convict laborers
Least free of whites
People commit major to trivial offensesà sent to America
Some manage to become successful backcountry farmers
Anglo-Americans don’t like this many people coming from different cultures
Don’t want colonies to be taken over by another culture
Rural White Men and Women
Benefits to rising living standards = enjoyed unevenly
True affluence = reserved for people with inherited wealth, save for Franklin and a few others.
Personal success for whites = limited à hard work.
Farmers
Couldn’t provide children with land of own when married
Children in 20s through 40s, lived past 60s – inheritance for all but youngest came in middle age.
Young adults – rarely more than 6th or 7th of estate à wills divided evenly b/w sons and daughters
Savings for farm equipment – working as field hand
Young husband – rent farm because of 33% down payments on mortgages.
High birthrates + shortages of productive land = limit farming opportunities
Young men turned to frontier, port cities, and high seas to make money.
Often supplemented income w/ seasonal work – carpentry, fur trapping, gathering honey, cider-making, shingle making, draining meadows, clearing fields, fencing land, etc.
Worked off mortgages slowly because cash income = interest on borrowed money (both about 6%)
Inherited shares of parents estate – help pay, as well as income form working teenagers
Freed of debt as youngest leaves home.
The more isolated/unproductive, the more self-sufficiency and bartering occurred
Dependent on abilities of women to make necessities
Clean, cook, boil soap, make clothes, tend garden, dairy, orchard, poultry house, and pigsty.
Sold dairy products to neighbors/merchants
Spun yarn for tailors, sold knitted garments and own hair for wigs
Women worked as much as men
Legally – women constrained à only autonomous decision = husband
Dowry after marriage:
English – lost control
Dutch – kept
French and Spanish – kept
Colonial Farmers and the Environment
Rapid expansion of colonies—environmental changes east of Appalachians
Had to remove trees before plotting land
Preferred heavily forested areas – better soil – willing to deal with labor of clearing
New England – had to clear rocks from Ice Age – built walls with them
Use timber for:
Housing, barns, fences
Fuel for heating/cooking
Sold to urbanites
Deforestation
Drives away forest animals and attract grass and sees eating animals (rabbits, mice, possums)
Removes protection from winds and sun – warmer summers, colder winters – increased demand for firewood.
Hastened the runoff of spring waters – flooding, dry streambeds, extensive swamps.
Reduced number of fish
Dried and hardened soil –developed idea of rotating crops to replenish nutrients within soil
Many didn’t have enough land to do this/were unwilling to give up any.
Chesapeake – tobacco fields declined after ¾ years à move inland, also contributing to increased soil erosion.
Turn to conservation “scientific” farming
The Urban Paradox
Cities – rising prosperity
Economic success elusive for Philly, NY, and Boston
Influx of poor white men, women, and children
High pop density, poor sanitation – contagious diseases à half of children died before age 21
Urban people – ten years off life expectancy
Urban artisans – has trained apprentices and employed them as journeymen before opening own shops – by this time, however, only employed laborers when business was good à recommended by Ben Franklin in 1751 to reduce labor costs
Recessions – 1720 à increasingly difficult to afford necessities
Urban poverty
1730 – Boston could no longer shelter destitute in almshouse (built 1635)
Number of residents too poor to pay taxes increased
NY – need poorhouse in 1736 – by 1772, 4% of residents needed assistance to survive.
Wealth – remained highly concentrated
NY’s wealthiest 10% owned 45% of property throughout 18th century.
Southern cities = large towns
Charles Town = North America’s 4th largest city
Gracious living to wealthy planters
White influx was encouraged, but most European newcomers couldn’t establish farms or find work.
Poor whites competed for work with rented-out slaves.
Middle class women in cities managed complex households
Often worked in family business and operated shops in homes
Less affluent wives and widows
Fewest opportunities
Housed boarders, had no servants
Spun cloth instead of buying it
Looked to community for relief
Bostonians looked wearily upon needs, in contrast to John Winthrop and other Puritan’s emphasis on care of the poor as a Christian duty.
1752 – City’s leading minister Charles Chauncy à lamented number of children on the streets, claiming they were there because of “idleness and ignorance”
Others said charity for widows and children was “money worse than lost”
Slavery’s Wages
For slaves, the economic progress in colonial America meant that owners could afford to keep them healthy – rarely make them comfortable
Amount of $ spent on indentured servants = more than on slaves
Blacks worked for far longer portion of lives than whites
Slave children
Black women tended tobacco/rice crops and worked outdoors even when pregnant VS. white women who worked in homes, barns, gardens
Africans and creoles tried to maximize opportunities within harsh system of slavery: demand tips of guests when shined shoes/stabled horses; sought presents on holidays
Task System: In South Carolina and Georgia rice country, slaves working under task system gained control of ½ their waking hours
Under tasking, slave spent time caring for a ¼ acre then ended duties for day
permitted a few slaves to keep hogs and sell veggies on own
1728- exceptional slave, Sampson earned enough $ to buy another slave who he sold to his master in exchange for own freedom
Gang System: used on tobacco plantations, afforded Chesapeake slaves less free time than Carolina slaves - worked “from daylight until dusk”
Despite Carolina slaves’ greater autonomy, racial tensions = high in the colony
As long as Europeans out#d Africans, race relations = relaxed
h/e as black majority emerged, whites ^ used force to control
1735 law- dress code imposed on slaves’ apparel – must be cheap
concerned about gatherings of blacks uncontrolled by whites à 1721, Charles Town enacted 9pm curfew for blacks, while Carolina’s assembly placed slave patrols under colonial militia
à blacks responded to colony’s vigilance/punishments with arson, theft, flight, violence
Stono Rebellion
South Carolina (sep. from NC since 1729) rocked by powerful slave uprising, Stono Rebellion
20 blacks seized guns/ammo from store outside Charles Town, marched under flag crying “liberty!”
collected 80 men à headed S toward Spanish FL (refuge for escapees)
along way burned 7 plantations, killed 20 whites, but spared Scottish innkeeper for being good man + kind to his slaves
within day, militia surrounded slaves and cut them down mercilessly
spiked heads on poles and placed between that spot + Charles Town
other uprisings in colony took more than month to suppress – ppl put to “most cruel death”
Thereafter, whites enacted a new slave code which:
kept SC slaves under constant surveillance
threatened masters with fines for not disciplining slaves
required legislative approval for manumission (freeing individ. slave)
Stono Rebellion therefore reinforced SC’s emergence as rigid, racist, fear-ridden society
Urban Slaves
Mid-century, pop of NYC = 20% slaves
Slave majority in Charles Town and Savannah
Southern slave owners rented out labor of slaves (cheaper than white workers)
Slave artisans (usually creoles) worked as shipwrights, rope makers, goldsmiths etc.
Slaves in northern cities often Unskilled
Urban slaves in both N+S lived apart from masters in rented quarters alongside free blacks
Though urban slavery afforded greater freedom than plantations, blacks still property, racist restrictions
1712 NYC - rebellious slaves killed 9 whites à as result, 18 slaves hanged/tortured to death; 6 others suicide to avoid it
1741- wave of thefts and fires attrib. to NY slaves led to similar executions of 26 slaves + 4 white accomplices, and the sale of 70 more blacks to W Indies
The Rise of Colonial Elites
British America’s upper class/gentry: A few colonists benefited disproportionately from growing wealth of Britain + colonies à these elite colonists inherited advantages at birth and ^ them thru crops, buying/selling commodities across Atlantic, serving as attorneys for other elite colonists
Gentleman expected to behave w/ responsibility, dignity, generosity, be community leader
His wide, a “lady” = skillful household manager, refined yet deferring hostess
Before 1700, colonies’ class structure not readily apparent b/c elites spent their limited resources buying land, servants, slaves instead of luxuries
As British mercantilist trade ^, higher incomes enabled elite colonists to display wealth (esp. in housing)
Greater gentry (richest 2% owning 15% of all property) constructed mansions
Lesser gentry (2nd wealthiest 2-10% holding 25% of all prop) lived in more modest dwellings
In contrast, middle-class farmers inhabited small 1story wooden buildings
Colonial gentlemen + ladies also showed status by imitating “refinement” of upper-class Europeans: $$$ Eng. fashions, carriages, chinaware, books, furniture, musical instruments, studied foreign langs, learned formal dances, polite manners, moved toward horse racing (bet) and away from cockfighting, traveled abroad to get Eng. edu.
Therefore, Elites led colonists growing taste for Brit. fashions + consumer goods
Competing for a Continent, 1713-1750
France and Native Americans
Louisiana is main French colony
Allied with Choctaw Indians
Choctaws get divided though as Carolina traders come in
Pro-English and pro-French Choctaws
Had hoped Choctaws would counter Spanish in Florida and Carolina’s traders
Louisiana Life
Corrupt government
Slow export economyà hard to support yourself
Could plant own food, hung, and fish
Depend on exchanges with native Americans
Indians give goods to merchants and merchants give things to Indians
Indians from Mississippi bring horses and cattle
Stolen from Spanish ranches in Texas
Africans familiar with cattle become rustlers or beef traders
Upper Louisiana= Illinois
Better off
1/3 slave population
Wheat is principal export
More reliable crop than commodities of tobacco or rice
Remote location attracts few whites
Harder to transport things too
Depend on Native American allies for defense from other Indian enemies
France tries to take Ohio Valley (already have Canada and Mississippi Valley)
Ohio Valley mostly has Iroquois
Peaceful place b/c of Iroquois neutrality after 1701
Attracts Indians from all over
France tries to get commercial and diplomatic ties with them
Detroit and other cities grow
House Indians, French and mètis (mixed)
English traders threaten this b/c they have cheaper goods
French do still subjugate some Indians
Face attacks from Carolina-supported Chickasaw Indians and Mesquakie (fox) Indians
Suppress Natchez Indians to take their land for plantations
Enslave native Americans for labor
Pushing west to North Dakota and Colorado
Trade with Indian slaves on great Plains
British have to competeà trade goods, guns included
Guns spread to Canada and then Plains
Plains Indians have horses too
Left by Spanish in New Mexico
With horses and guns, Indians have new mobile lifestyle
Use buffalo as major food source—chase it
France’s domain is dependent on relationship with native Americans
Native Americans and British Expansion
Colonies expand by taking native American land
Diseases, war, and political pressure used to get land
Carolina
Tuscarora Indians provoked by whites taking their land
Kidnap and enslave some people
Burn Swiss settlement of New Bern
North Carolina asks South Carolina and Indian allies for help in defeating Tuscarora
Crush Tuscarora
Survivors enslaved or migrate to upstate NY and join Iroquois confederacy (nation # 6)
Carolina allies don’t like continual subjugation of Native Americans
Yamasees with Catawbas and Creeks lead attack on English trading houses
Carolina eventually crushes it with help from slaves, Cherokee
Catawbas now vulnerable
Pressure on one side from English and Iroquois on the other
Carolina settlers moving closer to Catawba land
Catawbas move further out
Pushes them closer to Iroquois
Iroquois, after neutrality with French Indian allies, go south for raids etc
Catawbas give land to settlers and agree to help defend Carolina from outside Indians
Get guns, food, and clothing
Now they are stronger and have greater security
But, still a gap between settlers and Indians
Both competing for resources
Iroquois Confederacy in north makes Covenant Chain with several colonies
Confederacy helps colonies subjugate Indians whose land English wanted
Iroquois control the center of Native American power
Separate but cooperative with British
Also allows them to keep more of their own land by deflecting potential English expansion
Powerful when Pennsylvania enters in 1737
Pennsylvania declining from William Penn’s vision
Walking Purchase
Make fraudulent treaty
Claim it was made in 1686 w/ Delaware Indians
Say that Indians agreed to give them as much land as a man could walk in a half day
Delawares have to give 1200 sq miles to Pennsylvania, even though elders who were alive in 1686 didn’t remember this treaty
This land becomes most productive in British Empire
British Expansion in the South: Georgia
Parliament authorized new colony, Georgia
James Oglethorpe purchases land from Creeks
Wants to make Georgia a producer of commodities: silk, wine
Wants it to be a refuge for honest debtors
Parliament gives funding
Oglethorpe= main trustee
Founds Savannah= port of entry
Immigrants from Germany, Switzerland, and Scotland come over
Georgia most inclusive colony, along with Pennsylvania
Hates slavery
Thinks it makes whites lazy
Don’t want slave revolts that would give Spanish a chance to invade
Slavery undermines economic position of poor whites in Georgia
Georgia becomes only state with laws preventing slavery
Limited landholdings to no larger than 500 acres
Want to keep Georgia white for independent farmer-soldiers
Defend colony and not give up land to speculators or large plantations
His goals fail
Limits on settler’s land prevents immigration
Parliament has too many rules against debtor’s release from prison
Commodity crops are impractical
Only rice is profitable
Oglethorpe works against economic reality for a decade then gives up
Trustees legalize slavery and lift landholding restrictions
Georgia booms
Spain’s Tenacity
Spain spreads its language and culture in Southwest
Repopulate New Mexico after Pueblo Revolt
Give grants to small towns of 10 families or more
Build strong fortifications against Indian attacks (primarily Apache)
Build homes on small lots around church plaza and farm separate fields nearby, graze livestock at a distance
Share wood lot and pasture
Ranchos raise livestock
Very large radiating from towns
Monopolize land along the Rio Grande
Herders create life of American cowboy
Pueblo Indians cooperate with Spanish
Many convert to Catholicism in addition practice traditional religion
Come under Apache, Ute, and Comanche raids
Try to take livestock, European goods, and captives
Need to replace own people who were taken by Spanish raiders to work Mexican silver mines
Texas made to counter French influence w/ Comanches and other Indians in the Plains
Make outposts along San Antonio and Guadalupe Rivers
San Antonio de Béxar is center
2 towns—mission (the Alamo) and presidio
Most Indians in Texas prefer trade with the French to farming, Christianity, and ineffective protection of the Spanish
Lack of securityà many die in raids
Florida is also in danger
Neutrality of Creek Indians allow Spanish to compete in deerskin trade and sponsor counter-raids into Carolina
Offer freedom to English slaves who escape to Florida
Few colonists compared to Carolina
With founding of Georgia, they see it as a threat
Go to war when Spain and Britain do
Bloody and inconclusive
Spain’s control depends of alliances with Native Americans
The Return of War, 1739-1748
Britain goes to war against Spain under pretence that Spanish cut off the ear of a British smuggler named Jenkinsà War of Jenkins’ Ear
Oglethorpe leads assault on Florida
Doesn’t get St. Augustine
Repels counterattack on Georgia
Colonists join British assault on Cartenega
Many die b/c of Spanish repelling attack and yellow fever
War of Austrian Successionà King George’s War
Not many big battles in colonies
Most were attacks on civilians
Noncombatants killed or captured
Most captives are New Englanders captured by French or Indians
Prisoners exchanged after war but some elect to stay with their captors
Only one major fight
William Pepperell leads New Englanders of Main to besiege Louisbourg (French)
Louisbourg guards entrance to St. Lawrence river
Get Louisbourg, but no more
Inconclusive, long, and bloody warfare
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle
Exchange Louisbourg for French seized land in India
Colonists sacrifices at Cartenega and Louisbourg aren’t forgotten
Public Life in British America, 1689-1750
British ideas influence the colonies
British Bill of Rights is in colonies
George Whitefield sparks transformation of Protestantism
Enlightenment thinkers inspire colonists
Forges stronger bonds to Britain
Emphasize more people involved in politics, religious movements, and intellectual discussions
Colonial policies
Glorious revolutionà rise of legislatures as a major political force
Assemblies become more influential
Usually there is a governor appointed by crown or proprietor (except Connecticut and Rhode Island)
Chooses a council (except in Massachusetts)
Makes up upper house of legislature
Lower house is the assembly
Crown/proprietor has no authority in assembly
Used to just go along w/ governor and council
After Glorious Rev. they take more central role
Lower house wants rights given to House of Commons in England
They are essentially both the voice of the people
Want a greater check on the governor—like how English had checked the king with a constitutional monarchy
Bill of Rights
Especially interested in power of the purse that H of C had
Assemblies take control of taxes and budgets/ don’t allow any meddling
Has “power of the purse” b/c they control the governor’s salary not the English crown or the proprietor
Can sometimes convince governors to pass laws that wouldn’t pass other wise
Governor could veto acts, call/dismiss assembly sessions, and schedule elections
Board of Trade (1696)
Allowed crown to undo objectionable laws that assemblies had gotten past the governor
Doesn’t really use this power before mid 1700s
Colonies are self governing in everything but trade and money-printing restrictions
Representative government is nurtured in colonies and supported by British Empire
Participation in Government
Mostly dominated by wealthy elites in the assembly
Governors put greater gentry in his council to placate them
Lesser gentry could be in legislature but more often became justices of the peace
Running for Office
Legal requirements for running for office were hard to meet by most people
Most people weren’t wealthy enough to spare long periods of time away from the store/farm to go to the capital for meetings
So, wealthy families dominate
Suffrage
Must be white and male plus some other qualifications that varied
Sometimes land/wealth requirements
Participation in rural areas is low b/c people don’t want to travel to county seat to vote
Poor roads
Governors could schedule elections so elections were sporadic and sometimes rural people wouldn’t know they were being held
Sometimes elections were done orallyà people who disagree with elites don’t voice opinions
Elites would pre-arrange elections
Many people run unopposed
“running” for position was seen as un-gentleman-like
Rural people were pretty indifferent to politics
Some Mass. Towns refused to elect assembly so they wouldn’t have to pay for legislators’ expenses
Many elected candidates don’t take seats
Elections grow slowly
In time rural voters and urban voters express themselves more forcefully
Good political life in northern seaports
Colonists ally themselves for or against governor
Rival groups get non-elite support
Groups w/ governor fear that unleashing popular passions will lead to social disorder
New York has good political life
Governor William Cosby suspends political rival chief justice Lewis Morris for ruling against fim
Newspapers for Morris say Cosby and his council are corrupt
Newspapers for Governor accuse printer of New-York Weekly Journal (pro-Morris), Peter Zenger or libel
Zenger acquitted in trial
Attorney Andrew Hamilton had directly addressed juries on behalf of defendant, allowing them to decide
Uses truth of statements printed as evidence in libel case
Not sufficient evidence before
Zenger case doesn’t change press laws, but by empowering readers, nonelites, and jurors political power spreads to public life
Enlightenment and Great Awakening
Great Awakening comes after Enlightenment so as a reaction to what ideas were
Enlightenment
Talk in salons
Discuss ideas
People have higher levels of culture
All about reason
Preserve of people who are educated and wealthy
Breeds backlash by the people aren’t educated and wealthy
Ordinary people don’t like disconnect of reason and reality
Great Awakening
Movement to religion
Attack materialism/corruption of clergy
Some New England ministers start revival of religion
Draws people attention to the idea of rampant sin
Enlightenment goes against sin
Original sin goes against Locke’s idea of a blank slate upon birth
Whitefield
Addresses people’s emotions
Shows them that they have abandoned God for rationalism
Need to feel their sin-liness
More people are experiencing God
Before, only people in cities with churches nearby could do religion
Used to also be a sign of wealth
Pew rentals—you had to buy your pew
Church was a sign of wealth
Movement says religion is for everyone
Ministers travel out to the rural areas to give religion
Introduced to slaves and Native Americans
Beginning of “black clergy”
Reverends in slave quarters have services
Don’t need a terrible amount of training
Revivalists start colleges of their own
Know that ministers need training and they won’t get it at the Old Light schools
Princeton, Brown, Rutgers, Dartmouth, Columbia (seminary)
U Penn is a secular university
Starts as the Philadelphia Philosophical Society
Started by Benjamin Franklin
Enlightenment school
The Enlightenment
Intellectual movement
Greater literacy rate in New England b/c of Protestant support of education
More people are dabbling in a new world of ideas and information
Human intelligence is in an age of progress and optimism
Enlightenment ideas
Confidence in human reason
Skepticism of things not proven by science
Newton explains things
Benjamin Franklin
Moved from Boston to Philadelphia just as city was taking off
Meets people who share his intellectual zeal
Forms the Junto= reading discussion group
Help him get printing contracts
Prints Poor Richerd’s Almanack
Collection of proverbs
Gets enough money to retire
Works in science and community
2 goals are related—scienceà people live more comfortably (electricity for example)
Enlightenment centers are in cities
Ideas circulate
People make little intellectual groups
Franklin makes American Philosophical Society in 1743
Becomes an inter-colonial network of amateur scientists
Kind of like Royal Society in London
Link between Britain and colonies
Enlightenment people think thought filters from top down
Don’t trust common people, especially in religion
John Lock writes Essay Concerning Human Understandin g
Talks about “rational” religion
When Bible conflicts with reason, chose reason
Ideas are acquired through reflection on one’s own experience
Argument for a God= orderliness of nature
Called Diests—God created the perfect universe so he doesn’t readily intervene but lets it go according to nature
Most enlightenment thinkers say they are Christian but aren’t really
Fear religion’s excesses that lead people to persecute b/c of religious enthusiasm
People act out of emotion rather than piety
Locke says one can only be certain of their own existence
People skeptic of zealots and sectarians
Franklin says religion is good for developing virtue but isnt interested in “theological hair splitting”
Enlightenment ideas play a large role in American revolution and formation of the United States Government
The Great Awakening
Many people’s lives are still hard
Diptheria epidemicà renewed religious fervor
Religious fervor would increase and then recede periodically
In 1739 there is a great outpouring of Protestatant revivalism
Called the “Great Awakening”
Embodies people’s enxiety about sin and longing for assurances of salvaiton
Charismatic preachers address these anxieties
Address the emotions of people in their sermons
Don’t talk so much about the intellectual side of theology
Revivalists
Show emptiness of material goods
Corruption of human hature
Fury of divine wrath
Johnathan Edwards leads a revival in Northampton, Massachusetts
Presbyterians William Tennet and Theodore Frelinghuysen also lead revivals
Most important revivalist is George Whitefield
Very good speaker—very persuasive
Inspires many to revive faith/join church
Divisions arise out of revivalist movement
New lights= revivalists
John Davenport and Gilbert Tennet
Say established clergy are “dead drones”
Tennet publishes “The Danger of an Unconverted Ministry”
They are criticizing foundations of social order
People don’t know who to trust
Old Lights
Establisehd clergy
Usually enlightenment thinkers
Saw New Lights as having the passion they were so worried about
Passion goes against rational thought
Say people mistake ravings and imagination for the experience of divine grace
Charles Chuancy= Boston’s leading congressionalists
Splits between old lights and new lights, esp. in Mass. And Connecticut
New lights imprisoned and face persecution
Have to keep paying tithes b/c old lights deny new light churches legal status
Connecticut makes laws to prevent New Lights from having marriages and expels many from legislature
New lights eventually win out
Effects of the Great Awakening (peaks in 1742/ 1755 in Virginia)
Decrease in power of Quakers, Anglicans, and Congressionalists
Thus, weakens idea of officially established denominations
Influence of Presbyterians and Baptists increases
New colleges built
New lights and old lights don’t want to study together
Make new colleges
Spread religious ideas beyond white society
Some Africans and native Americans like idea of piety over intellectual learningà incorporate some Christianity into their traditional culture
Beginnings of black Protestantism
New lights reach out to slaves
Some slaves even get to preach at revivalist meetings
Blacks and Indians are still persecuted though
Women get more religious prominence
Had long been used as examples of Christian piety
New Lights give them right to speak and vote in church meetings
Gain power like Anne Hutchinson did but don’t face persecution she did
Blurs denominational differences among Protestants
Whitefield= Anglican, but preaches with Presbyterians (Tennet and Davenport)
People emphasize need for salvation over tiny intricacies in practice
Emphasizes people’s common experiences and promotes coexistence of denominations
Great Awakening doesn’t inspire any revolution or political ideas
But does show people disagreeing with ideas of authority
Later evolves into revolution
Questions
Pg 89-94: How do royal policies change over the period of 1660-1700? What was the effect of the Glorious Revolution?
95-109: How did colonial society shift as a result of Britain’s mercantilistic policies? How did political change accompany social change?
114-120: What were the Great Awakening and the Enlightenment? Why did they occur at roughtly the same time? What effects did they have on colonial life? Were they mutually supportive or mutually hostile?
109-114, 125-127: What overall effect did Britain’s global commercial was have on the development of the British American colonies? How was the French and Indian War especially significant?
Chapter Questions:
How did the Glorious Revolution and its outcome shape relations between England and its North American colonies?
What were the most important consequences of British mercantilism for the mainland colonies?
What factors best explain the relative strengths of British, French, and Spanish colonial empires in North America?
What were the most significant consequences of the Enlightenment and the Great Awakening for life in the British colonies?
Changes and Themes
About a century after initial settlement
New trade policies + diversity etc
A new identity comes about
People aren’t so much British but are now American
American Culture
Class System
No nobility
Everybody is potentially middle class
No aristocracy
Aristocrats are hereditary inheritants of land in England
In America, anybody can be a land owner
They have people of different incomes and station, but not class
People have every opportunity to make their own way up
Individualism—everybody has a shot
Rights
Europeans say you have rights because you belong to a certain group
Americans think there are rights regardless of groups/class
Social mobility
You can make yourself as successful as you want
Competitive and opportunistic
Inventiveness—people are more creative
Exceptionalism
Americans have a sense that they are different/better
Believe that they are truly unique
“city on a hill”
Some people think they are savage b/c they don’t follow traditional civil rules
Americans think they don’t have to follow these rules
Heterogeneous not homogenous society
Diversity
American doesn’t necessarily refer to a certain race or culture b/c America is so diverse and yet all American
Philadelphia
· Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Paine living in 1700s
o Thomas Paine
§ Writes Common Sense: talks about individual rights and social contract
§ Writes the Crisis: at the height of the American Revolution he tells them not to give up
o Both are publishers
· Thomas Paine
o Immigrant (vs. born in America)
o Comes to America, has a big effect, leaves America, goes to France
§ He is defining, expressing, and describing an American life
§ As American as Franklin
o Publicist- writes pamphlets about the American identity
§ Asks about whether or not English rule can work with this identity
· Benjamin Franklin
o Born in Boston
§ Has to leave b/c economy in Boston isn’t that great in 1720s
· Too far away from ship trade
§ His family had a lot of kids so he left to make his own way
· Goes to Philadelphia
o Making his way in Philadelphia and does really well
§ Retires early
§ Can work on inventions and such
§ Makes his money as a printer
· Poor Richard’s Almanac (self help book)
· Pennsylvania Gazette
§ Starts first fire insurance company
· Journalists trained to ask: “where’s the fire”
· Goes to fire site and sells them insurance
o He knows there is a reason to regard the colonies as a single entity
§ Looks at differences between Americans and British
§ Talking about problems that are uniquely American
· But, most of his life up to 30 was spent outside the country
· 1750s to mid 1760s he was doing Pennsylvania’s business in England (parliament)
o Colony’s ambassador to France
o Europeans who meet him use as a mental picture of an American
§ Give him honorary degrees from oxford and St. Andrewsà Dr. Franklin
o He is the visual contact of America
§ He knows it
§ Can make himself seem like a classy European or a common American Puritan/Quaker
· He is neither
· He attends a Presbyterian Church but isn’t that either
· He’s a Deist- religion of enlightenment philosophers: has no revelation and no creed
· Believes in just, ethical, supreme being who stays out of things
· Basic religious sense of ethics and justice
· Rational but ethical
· Shows up in church b/c he thinks religion has a good effect on American life
§ Comes back just in time for Constitutional Convention
Glorious Revolution
Monarchyà civil warà republicà monarchy (Charles II and James II)
Charles good at getting along with Parliament
Subtle Catholic
James has blatant disrespect for laws
Openly catholic
Has 2 Anglican daughters who people hope will take throne after him
Marries again and has a son—catholic
Policy
Both sons like to consolidate
Power
Communications of command
James= manager of colonial policy
Revokes charters of all colonies in New England
No more town meetings, general court, governor…
Form Dominion of New England
Incorporates New England + New York and New Jersey
Best way to consolidate power is to fuse together New England and Dutch conquered lands
Wants to reinstitute royal absolutism
Like French
Ignores English history and tradition
England has gone through a lot of different governments
Stuarts don’t learn that
Edmund Andros
Appointed to run the Dominion of New England
When James’ son is born leaders in England get rid of James
Invite William and Mary from Netherlands to come run England
Mary= one of James’ protestant daughters
James is chased out without bloodshed
Called Glorious Revolution
Glorious Revolution
Intellectual basis
Base revolution on political philosophies of John Locke
Natural rights: life, liberty, property
Born with these rights
Rights supposed to be protected by government
Society has made a social contract that gives power to government
That way government can protect rights
If rulers break social contract, they can be thrown out
Born unadorned
Your experiences make you who you are
Tabula raza= blank slate
American experience
Retains continuity
Still monarchy
Conditions for William and Mary is that they sign Bill of Rights
Bill of Rights
Have to consult Parliament
MUST be summoned
Permanent legislative
House of Commons officially get the “power of the purse”
In order to vote/take office you have to take communion in Church of England
Way of excluding Catholics and keeping them out of office
King can’t be catholic
Religious toleration laws though
There will be no standing army in peace time
Kings can’t impose military on people
Navy is excluded
In colonies, military presence is absent
Didn’t have money for it anyway
Colonies are militarily on their own
Reaffirmations of basic rights—“rights of Englishmen”
Due process of law
Jury of peers
Know charges against you
Habeaus corpus
Representation by lawyer
Right to a trial
See witnesses and cross examination
Tries to put all rights in writing
#s 4-8 of American Bill of Rights are originally from English Bill of Rights
Glorious Revolution in Colonies
Reversal of James II’s acts by Parliament/King William (crown and parliament have to go together)
Assemblies come back—town meetings
Dominion of England taken apart
Redo charters
Plymouth becomes part of Massachusetts
West Jersey and East Jersey put together
Assemblies
Electorate voting and running for office based on property ownership
Even in New England now
Vested interest- you have something to gain or lose
If you are voting for a representative who gets to vote on things that affect you
Property laws for example
If you don’t have any property to be taken away, you won’t understand the law
Mostly wealthy people do it- you have to be able to afford to live in county center
You don’t get paid for being in the legislature
It’s a duty, not a job
Domination of one idea over another
Tory= pro monarchy
Established church
Sympathize w/ French
Want strong central governmentà gives London power
People close to the king have power
“court party”
Whig= pro- parliament
Protestant pluralism
Sympathize w/ Dutchà anti-French
Want parliamentà representativeà decentralized power
“country party”
People’s country isn’t Britain
It’s their community
Believe liberties are best protected at local level
Best protected by people who know you
Representatives who can better speak for you
People are getting the idea that representative government is betterà rising “Whig ideology/outlook”
People realize they like government less royally centered
Proto- republicans
Whigs are in charge of government in England
Still forcing changes from top down from London onto colonies
Religious policy passed from England
Charters
Colonies still have no say in that
To colonists the whigs in London sound in tories
Whigs might be better defined as people who don’t have the power
Once you get the power you become like the Tories
That’s why US government has things get renewed—prevent so many tories
Colonies need to be linked with England though
England needs to keep authority from top down b/c when Britain goes to war the colonies of Britain and their enemies also go to war
Colonies have a certain political understanding
Glorious Revolution confirms it but also says that colonies have to answer to authority in London
Trade
Nothing has changed on trade—Navigation Acts
Goods have to be routed through London so they can get their tax, even if start and end locations are in colonies
Army
Colonial militias, not organized army
No British troops in colonies
French-Indian war needs military later
Britain troops aren’t voluntary
Press gang—take negligent people and kidnap them to army
Take people from jails too
Officers buy their commission
You buy your way up
Changes
Government policies that puts rules in place but sees that it’s not good to enforce them all the time= Salutary Neglect
Can’t arrest everybody
Only focus on important things
Show you’re in charge but that you have better things to do than chaperone all the time
Sometimes it’s more profitable to allow illegal things to go on
Bribery
As a result, smuggling and trade within colonies goes on
If Britain ever reverses that stance, colonies will get angry
Colonies are responding to a need to connect more effectively
Shipping lanes
Beginning of a road system
Clear idea of how to get from place to place
Called “post road”
Before there was only a loose network of Indian trails
Knit them together
Beginnings of east/west highway between colonial networks
North/south highways too
Movement and correspondence between colonies
Postal system
Ask crown to name someone in charge of post system (roads etc)—postmaster general
Appoint Benjamin Franklin
Immigration
Affects colonial economic scene
Natural increase + burst of immigrants
Africans 1/5 colonials is of African origins
Germans
Mostly religious minorities—pacifists
Penn likes them
Called “Pennsylvania Dutch”
Live in cities and frontier of Pennsylvania
Good at growing things
Germany becomes 2nd most popular language
Movement to make Germany official language
West Germany mostly
English
Scots
Scots Irish
Scottish transported to northern Ireland for fertile land
Land isn’t good enough
Protestant
Irish
Some Catholics, but mostly Protestant
Differences in wealth
English more wealthy than Irish, Scots Irish, Scots
Get exploited by the English
English immigrants decreasing some
Better economy in Britain
Resentment against Britain
Scots, Scots Irish, and Scots are unhappy that even in America English have the power
Resentment continues into America
Groups go into the background and become more radical
Don’t like power structure
Slavery issue
Great Awakening
Opposed to Puritanism
Puritans have predestination
Now they can repent and be saved
Treats people with dignityà anti-slavery
Enlightenment
About logic—it is hard to unite enlightenment with slavery
On one hand, slavery denies the natural rights of slaves and puts them into a social contract that does not honor those rights
On other hand, social contract based on the preservation of property and slaves are considered property
So, you can be pro enlightenment and anti slavery
You need a new reason for supporting anti-slavery though
You are anti-slavery because it is unreasonable, not because it’s a sin
It doesn’t make sense to do bad things
Two opposing movements but they do agree on certain issues
Only support things for different reasons
Rebellion and War, 1660-1713
English make an effort to expand overseas trade at expense of their rivals
Subordinate colonies to English commercial interests and political authority
Royal Centralization, 1660-1688
James II and Charles II are sons of Charles I, who was executed by Parliament
They distrust representative government
Charles doesn’t call parliament
James wants to have absolute rule without facing an elected legislature
Don’t like colonial assemblies
New York has most direct political control by royals
James II is Duke of York
Forbids assemblies to meet except for a short period of time
Charles appoints former army officers to 90 % of posts
Against English tradition of only having military in charge of civil authority
“governors general” is what they are called
New Englanders are resentful of meddling
Massachusetts declares citizens exempt from royal decrees and laws except for a declaration of war
Ignore navigation acts
Charles targets Massachusetts
Takes some land from it to make New Hampshire
Revokes its charter and makes it a royal colony
When James II becomes king he makes Dominion of New England
Combines Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Plymouth into one administrative unit
New York and New Jersey later added
Legislatures in colonies cease to exist
Sir Edmund Andros becomes governor of Dominion
Massachusetts hates Andros
He suppresses legislature
Allows only one annual meeting
Enforced toleration of Anglicans and Navigation acts
Puts some elites in high office
In New York Catholics have prominent political and military posts
People worried that they would betray NY to France
The Glorious Revolution in England and America, 1688-1689
Colonists become scared as James II and Charles II turn catholic
James converts and Charles converts on his deathbed
People get even more worried when they show signs of allying England with France, which had begun to persecute Protestant Huguenots
English only tolerated James II’s Catholicism because they thought his Anglican daughters would inherit the throne
When he has a son, who rules as a Catholic, some religious and political leaders ask Mary and husband William of Orange (leader of Dutch Republic) to take throne
Lead Dutch army to England in November 1688
Royal troops defect
James II flees to France
Called the Glorious Revolution- bloodless
New crown agrees to
Summon Parliament annually
Sing all parliament’s bills
Respect traditional civil liberties
Colonies also move towards revolution
New England
Before finding out about the success of the Glorious Rev, Boston’s militia arrests Andros and his councilors
Act in the name of William and Mary
William and Mary dismantle Dominion of New England
Restore power to elected governors of Connecticut and Rhode Island
Retain Massachusetts as royal colony
Let it have Plymouth and Maine but not New Hampshire
Crown rather than electorate would appoint governor
Landownership, not church ownership becomes voting criteria
They had to start tolerating other Christians (whose taxes would still go to their congregation)
New York
Leisler’s Rebellion
City’s militia, led by Captain Jacob Leisler, take command of harbor’s main fort
Repair defenses
Call for elections for assembly
Don’t let English troops into key fortsà skirmish
Leisler arrested and charged with treason
He had arrested a lot of elites who rejected his authority
They had talked to new governor and got him convicted for firing on royal troops
Leisler and son-in-law sent to gallows
Maryland
Message from Lord Baltimore saying to obey William and Mary gets lost when messenger dies in passage
Hoped message would prevent any uprisings
Protestants fear Lord Baltimore supports James II secretly
John Cood and 3 others make Protestant Association and try to secure Maryland for William and Mary
Possibly more of a result of the fact that they resented being excluded from high public office b/c ¾ had Catholic wives
Seize capital and get Catholics out of office
Request royal governor
Get governor in 1691
Make Church of England established religion
Catholics can’t worship publicly and can’t vote
Remains a royal colony until 4th Lord Baltimore gets it back by entering Church of England
Important Change
Reestablishes legislative government and religious freedom for Protestants
William and Mary get rid f Dominion
Hand power over to elites, which they trust to follow interests of England
Makes system of allegiance voluntary rather than raw power imposed from far away
Americans have rising confidence from relationship with English throne
A Generation of War, 1689-1713
King William’s War
England joins a coalition against France’s Louis XIV, who supported James II’s claim to throne
War of League of Augsburg or King William’s War
New Yorkers and New Englanders launch attack
Attack Montréal
Attack Quebec
Both invasions fail
Fighting becomes violent inconclusive border raids by both sides and their Indian allies
Five nations Iroquois Confederacy bears most of bloodshed
Almost alone against enemies: pro-French Indians go from Maine to Great lakes
English armies often fail to intercept enemies
Many Iroquois die
By 1700 Iroquois are divided into pro-English, pro-French, and neutralists
Neutralists try diplomacy
Make treaty called Grand Settlement of 1701
Makes peace w/ France and its Indian allies in exchange for access to western furs
Redefines alliances with England to exclude military commitments
Allows them to keep control of land, rebuild population, and gain recognition as a power in Northeast
War of Spanish Succession/Queen Anne’s War
Reinforces Anglo-American’s sense of military weakness
French destroy several newly built towns
Anglo-Spanish war extends old conflicts between New Spain and the Carolinas
Almost take Charles Town in 1706
Launch coastal raids and looting parties
Colonies siege Quebec and St. Augustineà expensive failures
English forces do a better than the colonists
Take Hudson bay , Newfoundland, and Acadia (Nova Scotia)
But, French and Indian hold is still unbroken in interior
Consequences are important politically
Establishes Anglo-Americans as people of Protestantism and liberty
But they realize that they are still dependent on the UK for protection
War buttresses their loyalty to the crown
Colonial Economies and Societies, 1660-1750
- Britain, France, and Spain were economic rivals – used N.A.
o Wanted to integrate colonies into single imperial economies
Mercantilist Empires in America
o Britain, France and Spain were rooted in mercantilism – self-sufficiency (exporting more than importing)
o Britain’s mercantilist policies were summarized in Navigation Acts – governed commerce between England and its colonies
§ Colonial trade be carried on English or colonial owned vessels
§ Prohibited trade to countries other than England
§ Molasses Act of 1733 – taxed foreign molasses entering mainland colonies
· Served as tariff
o Effects of Navigation Acts
§ 1) Limited all imperial trade to English ships who crews were mostly English
· Laid foundations for American shipbuilding industry and merchant marine
· Swift growth of merchant marine – made northern colonial economy more commercial
· Created centralized docks, warehouses, and repair shops in colonies
§ 2) Barring exports of certain “enumerated goods” to foreign nations unless items passed through England or Scotland
· Enumerated goods = tobacco, rice, furs, indigo, etc.
· Parliament reduced burdens on exporters
o Gave tobacco growers a monopoly over British market by excluding foreign tobacco
o Minimized added cost of landing tobacco and rice in Britain by refunding customs duties when products were later shipped to other countries
§ 3) Encourage economic diversification
· Parliament used British tax revenues to pay bounties to Americans producing goods
· Raised price of commercial rivals’ imports by imposing tariffs
· Colonists produced clothing and iron
§ 4) Made colonies a protected market for low-priced consumer goods and other exports from Britain
· Demand for colonial products led to prosperity – enabled colonists to consume larger amounts of other goods
· Shops sprang up
· Itinerant peddlers traveled to more remote areas
o 1760s à Consumer Revolution
§ Increase in consumer buying and selling (contributed to exports from 5% to 40%)
o Imported goods enabled middle class colonists to mimic lifestyles of British
§ Popular import à tea
o Economic development of French and Spanish was nothing compared to that of British colonies
o France
§ France’s most forceful proponent of mercantilism – Colbert
§ Had difficulty implementing mercantilist policies
· New France eventually developed economic self-sufficiency
· Chief imports: wine and brandy; chief export: furs (expanded fur trade)
§ France maintained army in Canada – drained royal treasury
§ French Canadians lacked private investment, extensive commercial infrastructure vast consumer market, and manufacturing capacity of British
§ France’s greatest American success – French planters emulated English by importing large numbers of African slaves to produce sugar
· French planters defied some mercantilist policies
o French sugar planters made own molasses rather than shipping raw sugar off to France to be refined
o Spain
§ Spain spent wealth of gold and silver
· Economy revived (but not in N.A.)
· Spanish colonies didn’t really have overseas commerce
§ Spanish traded with Louisiana, British, French, and Indian allies
o England became mercantile-commercial economy
§ Strengthened navy to protect trade
§ Benefits also affected British colonies as well (Parliament intended for only Britain to benefit)
Immigration, Population Growth, and Diversity
British have most people in North America—gives them an advantage over Spain and Britain
Spain
Usually immigrants go to South America, not New Mexico, Texas, or Florida
Limits immigration to Catholicsà protestants go to British America
Sees North American colonies more as buffers for protecting South America from English and French
Rely on soldiers in presidios (forts) and strategically placed missions that would convert Indians for defense
France
Canada and Louisiana don’t sound very appealing b/c of harsh winters and poor economy
Limits immigration to Catholics
French immigration suffers
Mostly criminals and paupers get sent there
Some colonies made in Missouri and Upper Louisiana
Military prominent while missionaries and traders work with Native Americans
English colonies
Have good farmland, healthy economy, and a willingness to absorb most European religions (except Catholicism)
Population growth is more from natural increase than immigration
More slaves start coming over
Coming to America
Some traders deliberately mix many cultures on a ship to prevent rebellion
Some chose slaves from certain regions for their rice growing experience
Passage over is cramped and disease ridden
Many die or try to jump overboard
Slave population doubles
Primarily a southern institution but still slaves in north
5% of all slaves are going to US
Colonists couldn’t afford as many male slaves as they wanted so they bought women and preserved their health
Start up family units
Better life expectancy for slaves than in Caribbean
Creole Slaves (American-born slaves)
Have advantages over African-born blacks
Familiar with environment, culture, and way of their masters
Do less hard labor and more housework
African born slaves go to new settlements to do heavy labor
Immigration
Not as many English are coming over
Wages and employment had risen in Englandà less people need to come
But, still hardships in British Isles and northern Europeà immigration
Results in diversity
Many are Scots-Irish
Scottish Presbyterians whose ancestors settled in Ireland to escape rack renting (sharp frequent increases in farm rents)
Immigrate in complete families
Catholic Irish immigrants come over single but can’t find many Catholic women
Change to Protestant to take a wife
Work as indentured servants
German
Escaping economic hardships in wartime Rhine Valley
Squeezed onto plots of land too small to support and feed a family
Come over by indenturing themselves or the family
Most Lutheran or Calvinist and some pacifist religions
Immigrants are poor
Mostly indentured servants who could face brutal conditions
A lot of people come to Philadelphia and Piedmont
Germans in upper NY
Scots Irish and Germans in go south from Pennsylvania and into Maryland
Germans and Irish into Charles Town
Outpouring of people, including immigrants, from Chesapeake into North Carolina
Convict laborers
Least free of whites
People commit major to trivial offensesà sent to America
Some manage to become successful backcountry farmers
Anglo-Americans don’t like this many people coming from different cultures
Don’t want colonies to be taken over by another culture
Rural White Men and Women
Benefits to rising living standards = enjoyed unevenly
True affluence = reserved for people with inherited wealth, save for Franklin and a few others.
Personal success for whites = limited à hard work.
Farmers
Couldn’t provide children with land of own when married
Children in 20s through 40s, lived past 60s – inheritance for all but youngest came in middle age.
Young adults – rarely more than 6th or 7th of estate à wills divided evenly b/w sons and daughters
Savings for farm equipment – working as field hand
Young husband – rent farm because of 33% down payments on mortgages.
High birthrates + shortages of productive land = limit farming opportunities
Young men turned to frontier, port cities, and high seas to make money.
Often supplemented income w/ seasonal work – carpentry, fur trapping, gathering honey, cider-making, shingle making, draining meadows, clearing fields, fencing land, etc.
Worked off mortgages slowly because cash income = interest on borrowed money (both about 6%)
Inherited shares of parents estate – help pay, as well as income form working teenagers
Freed of debt as youngest leaves home.
The more isolated/unproductive, the more self-sufficiency and bartering occurred
Dependent on abilities of women to make necessities
Clean, cook, boil soap, make clothes, tend garden, dairy, orchard, poultry house, and pigsty.
Sold dairy products to neighbors/merchants
Spun yarn for tailors, sold knitted garments and own hair for wigs
Women worked as much as men
Legally – women constrained à only autonomous decision = husband
Dowry after marriage:
English – lost control
Dutch – kept
French and Spanish – kept
Colonial Farmers and the Environment
Rapid expansion of colonies—environmental changes east of Appalachians
Had to remove trees before plotting land
Preferred heavily forested areas – better soil – willing to deal with labor of clearing
New England – had to clear rocks from Ice Age – built walls with them
Use timber for:
Housing, barns, fences
Fuel for heating/cooking
Sold to urbanites
Deforestation
Drives away forest animals and attract grass and sees eating animals (rabbits, mice, possums)
Removes protection from winds and sun – warmer summers, colder winters – increased demand for firewood.
Hastened the runoff of spring waters – flooding, dry streambeds, extensive swamps.
Reduced number of fish
Dried and hardened soil –developed idea of rotating crops to replenish nutrients within soil
Many didn’t have enough land to do this/were unwilling to give up any.
Chesapeake – tobacco fields declined after ¾ years à move inland, also contributing to increased soil erosion.
Turn to conservation “scientific” farming
The Urban Paradox
Cities – rising prosperity
Economic success elusive for Philly, NY, and Boston
Influx of poor white men, women, and children
High pop density, poor sanitation – contagious diseases à half of children died before age 21
Urban people – ten years off life expectancy
Urban artisans – has trained apprentices and employed them as journeymen before opening own shops – by this time, however, only employed laborers when business was good à recommended by Ben Franklin in 1751 to reduce labor costs
Recessions – 1720 à increasingly difficult to afford necessities
Urban poverty
1730 – Boston could no longer shelter destitute in almshouse (built 1635)
Number of residents too poor to pay taxes increased
NY – need poorhouse in 1736 – by 1772, 4% of residents needed assistance to survive.
Wealth – remained highly concentrated
NY’s wealthiest 10% owned 45% of property throughout 18th century.
Southern cities = large towns
Charles Town = North America’s 4th largest city
Gracious living to wealthy planters
White influx was encouraged, but most European newcomers couldn’t establish farms or find work.
Poor whites competed for work with rented-out slaves.
Middle class women in cities managed complex households
Often worked in family business and operated shops in homes
Less affluent wives and widows
Fewest opportunities
Housed boarders, had no servants
Spun cloth instead of buying it
Looked to community for relief
Bostonians looked wearily upon needs, in contrast to John Winthrop and other Puritan’s emphasis on care of the poor as a Christian duty.
1752 – City’s leading minister Charles Chauncy à lamented number of children on the streets, claiming they were there because of “idleness and ignorance”
Others said charity for widows and children was “money worse than lost”
Slavery’s Wages
For slaves, the economic progress in colonial America meant that owners could afford to keep them healthy – rarely make them comfortable
Amount of $ spent on indentured servants = more than on slaves
Blacks worked for far longer portion of lives than whites
Slave children
Black women tended tobacco/rice crops and worked outdoors even when pregnant VS. white women who worked in homes, barns, gardens
Africans and creoles tried to maximize opportunities within harsh system of slavery: demand tips of guests when shined shoes/stabled horses; sought presents on holidays
Task System: In South Carolina and Georgia rice country, slaves working under task system gained control of ½ their waking hours
Under tasking, slave spent time caring for a ¼ acre then ended duties for day
permitted a few slaves to keep hogs and sell veggies on own
1728- exceptional slave, Sampson earned enough $ to buy another slave who he sold to his master in exchange for own freedom
Gang System: used on tobacco plantations, afforded Chesapeake slaves less free time than Carolina slaves - worked “from daylight until dusk”
Despite Carolina slaves’ greater autonomy, racial tensions = high in the colony
As long as Europeans out#d Africans, race relations = relaxed
h/e as black majority emerged, whites ^ used force to control
1735 law- dress code imposed on slaves’ apparel – must be cheap
concerned about gatherings of blacks uncontrolled by whites à 1721, Charles Town enacted 9pm curfew for blacks, while Carolina’s assembly placed slave patrols under colonial militia
à blacks responded to colony’s vigilance/punishments with arson, theft, flight, violence
Stono Rebellion
South Carolina (sep. from NC since 1729) rocked by powerful slave uprising, Stono Rebellion
20 blacks seized guns/ammo from store outside Charles Town, marched under flag crying “liberty!”
collected 80 men à headed S toward Spanish FL (refuge for escapees)
along way burned 7 plantations, killed 20 whites, but spared Scottish innkeeper for being good man + kind to his slaves
within day, militia surrounded slaves and cut them down mercilessly
spiked heads on poles and placed between that spot + Charles Town
other uprisings in colony took more than month to suppress – ppl put to “most cruel death”
Thereafter, whites enacted a new slave code which:
kept SC slaves under constant surveillance
threatened masters with fines for not disciplining slaves
required legislative approval for manumission (freeing individ. slave)
Stono Rebellion therefore reinforced SC’s emergence as rigid, racist, fear-ridden society
Urban Slaves
Mid-century, pop of NYC = 20% slaves
Slave majority in Charles Town and Savannah
Southern slave owners rented out labor of slaves (cheaper than white workers)
Slave artisans (usually creoles) worked as shipwrights, rope makers, goldsmiths etc.
Slaves in northern cities often Unskilled
Urban slaves in both N+S lived apart from masters in rented quarters alongside free blacks
Though urban slavery afforded greater freedom than plantations, blacks still property, racist restrictions
1712 NYC - rebellious slaves killed 9 whites à as result, 18 slaves hanged/tortured to death; 6 others suicide to avoid it
1741- wave of thefts and fires attrib. to NY slaves led to similar executions of 26 slaves + 4 white accomplices, and the sale of 70 more blacks to W Indies
The Rise of Colonial Elites
British America’s upper class/gentry: A few colonists benefited disproportionately from growing wealth of Britain + colonies à these elite colonists inherited advantages at birth and ^ them thru crops, buying/selling commodities across Atlantic, serving as attorneys for other elite colonists
Gentleman expected to behave w/ responsibility, dignity, generosity, be community leader
His wide, a “lady” = skillful household manager, refined yet deferring hostess
Before 1700, colonies’ class structure not readily apparent b/c elites spent their limited resources buying land, servants, slaves instead of luxuries
As British mercantilist trade ^, higher incomes enabled elite colonists to display wealth (esp. in housing)
Greater gentry (richest 2% owning 15% of all property) constructed mansions
Lesser gentry (2nd wealthiest 2-10% holding 25% of all prop) lived in more modest dwellings
In contrast, middle-class farmers inhabited small 1story wooden buildings
Colonial gentlemen + ladies also showed status by imitating “refinement” of upper-class Europeans: $$$ Eng. fashions, carriages, chinaware, books, furniture, musical instruments, studied foreign langs, learned formal dances, polite manners, moved toward horse racing (bet) and away from cockfighting, traveled abroad to get Eng. edu.
Therefore, Elites led colonists growing taste for Brit. fashions + consumer goods
Competing for a Continent, 1713-1750
France and Native Americans
Louisiana is main French colony
Allied with Choctaw Indians
Choctaws get divided though as Carolina traders come in
Pro-English and pro-French Choctaws
Had hoped Choctaws would counter Spanish in Florida and Carolina’s traders
Louisiana Life
Corrupt government
Slow export economyà hard to support yourself
Could plant own food, hung, and fish
Depend on exchanges with native Americans
Indians give goods to merchants and merchants give things to Indians
Indians from Mississippi bring horses and cattle
Stolen from Spanish ranches in Texas
Africans familiar with cattle become rustlers or beef traders
Upper Louisiana= Illinois
Better off
1/3 slave population
Wheat is principal export
More reliable crop than commodities of tobacco or rice
Remote location attracts few whites
Harder to transport things too
Depend on Native American allies for defense from other Indian enemies
France tries to take Ohio Valley (already have Canada and Mississippi Valley)
Ohio Valley mostly has Iroquois
Peaceful place b/c of Iroquois neutrality after 1701
Attracts Indians from all over
France tries to get commercial and diplomatic ties with them
Detroit and other cities grow
House Indians, French and mètis (mixed)
English traders threaten this b/c they have cheaper goods
French do still subjugate some Indians
Face attacks from Carolina-supported Chickasaw Indians and Mesquakie (fox) Indians
Suppress Natchez Indians to take their land for plantations
Enslave native Americans for labor
Pushing west to North Dakota and Colorado
Trade with Indian slaves on great Plains
British have to competeà trade goods, guns included
Guns spread to Canada and then Plains
Plains Indians have horses too
Left by Spanish in New Mexico
With horses and guns, Indians have new mobile lifestyle
Use buffalo as major food source—chase it
France’s domain is dependent on relationship with native Americans
Native Americans and British Expansion
Colonies expand by taking native American land
Diseases, war, and political pressure used to get land
Carolina
Tuscarora Indians provoked by whites taking their land
Kidnap and enslave some people
Burn Swiss settlement of New Bern
North Carolina asks South Carolina and Indian allies for help in defeating Tuscarora
Crush Tuscarora
Survivors enslaved or migrate to upstate NY and join Iroquois confederacy (nation # 6)
Carolina allies don’t like continual subjugation of Native Americans
Yamasees with Catawbas and Creeks lead attack on English trading houses
Carolina eventually crushes it with help from slaves, Cherokee
Catawbas now vulnerable
Pressure on one side from English and Iroquois on the other
Carolina settlers moving closer to Catawba land
Catawbas move further out
Pushes them closer to Iroquois
Iroquois, after neutrality with French Indian allies, go south for raids etc
Catawbas give land to settlers and agree to help defend Carolina from outside Indians
Get guns, food, and clothing
Now they are stronger and have greater security
But, still a gap between settlers and Indians
Both competing for resources
Iroquois Confederacy in north makes Covenant Chain with several colonies
Confederacy helps colonies subjugate Indians whose land English wanted
Iroquois control the center of Native American power
Separate but cooperative with British
Also allows them to keep more of their own land by deflecting potential English expansion
Powerful when Pennsylvania enters in 1737
Pennsylvania declining from William Penn’s vision
Walking Purchase
Make fraudulent treaty
Claim it was made in 1686 w/ Delaware Indians
Say that Indians agreed to give them as much land as a man could walk in a half day
Delawares have to give 1200 sq miles to Pennsylvania, even though elders who were alive in 1686 didn’t remember this treaty
This land becomes most productive in British Empire
British Expansion in the South: Georgia
Parliament authorized new colony, Georgia
James Oglethorpe purchases land from Creeks
Wants to make Georgia a producer of commodities: silk, wine
Wants it to be a refuge for honest debtors
Parliament gives funding
Oglethorpe= main trustee
Founds Savannah= port of entry
Immigrants from Germany, Switzerland, and Scotland come over
Georgia most inclusive colony, along with Pennsylvania
Hates slavery
Thinks it makes whites lazy
Don’t want slave revolts that would give Spanish a chance to invade
Slavery undermines economic position of poor whites in Georgia
Georgia becomes only state with laws preventing slavery
Limited landholdings to no larger than 500 acres
Want to keep Georgia white for independent farmer-soldiers
Defend colony and not give up land to speculators or large plantations
His goals fail
Limits on settler’s land prevents immigration
Parliament has too many rules against debtor’s release from prison
Commodity crops are impractical
Only rice is profitable
Oglethorpe works against economic reality for a decade then gives up
Trustees legalize slavery and lift landholding restrictions
Georgia booms
Spain’s Tenacity
Spain spreads its language and culture in Southwest
Repopulate New Mexico after Pueblo Revolt
Give grants to small towns of 10 families or more
Build strong fortifications against Indian attacks (primarily Apache)
Build homes on small lots around church plaza and farm separate fields nearby, graze livestock at a distance
Share wood lot and pasture
Ranchos raise livestock
Very large radiating from towns
Monopolize land along the Rio Grande
Herders create life of American cowboy
Pueblo Indians cooperate with Spanish
Many convert to Catholicism in addition practice traditional religion
Come under Apache, Ute, and Comanche raids
Try to take livestock, European goods, and captives
Need to replace own people who were taken by Spanish raiders to work Mexican silver mines
Texas made to counter French influence w/ Comanches and other Indians in the Plains
Make outposts along San Antonio and Guadalupe Rivers
San Antonio de Béxar is center
2 towns—mission (the Alamo) and presidio
Most Indians in Texas prefer trade with the French to farming, Christianity, and ineffective protection of the Spanish
Lack of securityà many die in raids
Florida is also in danger
Neutrality of Creek Indians allow Spanish to compete in deerskin trade and sponsor counter-raids into Carolina
Offer freedom to English slaves who escape to Florida
Few colonists compared to Carolina
With founding of Georgia, they see it as a threat
Go to war when Spain and Britain do
Bloody and inconclusive
Spain’s control depends of alliances with Native Americans
The Return of War, 1739-1748
Britain goes to war against Spain under pretence that Spanish cut off the ear of a British smuggler named Jenkinsà War of Jenkins’ Ear
Oglethorpe leads assault on Florida
Doesn’t get St. Augustine
Repels counterattack on Georgia
Colonists join British assault on Cartenega
Many die b/c of Spanish repelling attack and yellow fever
War of Austrian Successionà King George’s War
Not many big battles in colonies
Most were attacks on civilians
Noncombatants killed or captured
Most captives are New Englanders captured by French or Indians
Prisoners exchanged after war but some elect to stay with their captors
Only one major fight
William Pepperell leads New Englanders of Main to besiege Louisbourg (French)
Louisbourg guards entrance to St. Lawrence river
Get Louisbourg, but no more
Inconclusive, long, and bloody warfare
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle
Exchange Louisbourg for French seized land in India
Colonists sacrifices at Cartenega and Louisbourg aren’t forgotten
Public Life in British America, 1689-1750
British ideas influence the colonies
British Bill of Rights is in colonies
George Whitefield sparks transformation of Protestantism
Enlightenment thinkers inspire colonists
Forges stronger bonds to Britain
Emphasize more people involved in politics, religious movements, and intellectual discussions
Colonial policies
Glorious revolutionà rise of legislatures as a major political force
Assemblies become more influential
Usually there is a governor appointed by crown or proprietor (except Connecticut and Rhode Island)
Chooses a council (except in Massachusetts)
Makes up upper house of legislature
Lower house is the assembly
Crown/proprietor has no authority in assembly
Used to just go along w/ governor and council
After Glorious Rev. they take more central role
Lower house wants rights given to House of Commons in England
They are essentially both the voice of the people
Want a greater check on the governor—like how English had checked the king with a constitutional monarchy
Bill of Rights
Especially interested in power of the purse that H of C had
Assemblies take control of taxes and budgets/ don’t allow any meddling
Has “power of the purse” b/c they control the governor’s salary not the English crown or the proprietor
Can sometimes convince governors to pass laws that wouldn’t pass other wise
Governor could veto acts, call/dismiss assembly sessions, and schedule elections
Board of Trade (1696)
Allowed crown to undo objectionable laws that assemblies had gotten past the governor
Doesn’t really use this power before mid 1700s
Colonies are self governing in everything but trade and money-printing restrictions
Representative government is nurtured in colonies and supported by British Empire
Participation in Government
Mostly dominated by wealthy elites in the assembly
Governors put greater gentry in his council to placate them
Lesser gentry could be in legislature but more often became justices of the peace
Running for Office
Legal requirements for running for office were hard to meet by most people
Most people weren’t wealthy enough to spare long periods of time away from the store/farm to go to the capital for meetings
So, wealthy families dominate
Suffrage
Must be white and male plus some other qualifications that varied
Sometimes land/wealth requirements
Participation in rural areas is low b/c people don’t want to travel to county seat to vote
Poor roads
Governors could schedule elections so elections were sporadic and sometimes rural people wouldn’t know they were being held
Sometimes elections were done orallyà people who disagree with elites don’t voice opinions
Elites would pre-arrange elections
Many people run unopposed
“running” for position was seen as un-gentleman-like
Rural people were pretty indifferent to politics
Some Mass. Towns refused to elect assembly so they wouldn’t have to pay for legislators’ expenses
Many elected candidates don’t take seats
Elections grow slowly
In time rural voters and urban voters express themselves more forcefully
Good political life in northern seaports
Colonists ally themselves for or against governor
Rival groups get non-elite support
Groups w/ governor fear that unleashing popular passions will lead to social disorder
New York has good political life
Governor William Cosby suspends political rival chief justice Lewis Morris for ruling against fim
Newspapers for Morris say Cosby and his council are corrupt
Newspapers for Governor accuse printer of New-York Weekly Journal (pro-Morris), Peter Zenger or libel
Zenger acquitted in trial
Attorney Andrew Hamilton had directly addressed juries on behalf of defendant, allowing them to decide
Uses truth of statements printed as evidence in libel case
Not sufficient evidence before
Zenger case doesn’t change press laws, but by empowering readers, nonelites, and jurors political power spreads to public life
Enlightenment and Great Awakening
Great Awakening comes after Enlightenment so as a reaction to what ideas were
Enlightenment
Talk in salons
Discuss ideas
People have higher levels of culture
All about reason
Preserve of people who are educated and wealthy
Breeds backlash by the people aren’t educated and wealthy
Ordinary people don’t like disconnect of reason and reality
Great Awakening
Movement to religion
Attack materialism/corruption of clergy
Some New England ministers start revival of religion
Draws people attention to the idea of rampant sin
Enlightenment goes against sin
Original sin goes against Locke’s idea of a blank slate upon birth
Whitefield
Addresses people’s emotions
Shows them that they have abandoned God for rationalism
Need to feel their sin-liness
More people are experiencing God
Before, only people in cities with churches nearby could do religion
Used to also be a sign of wealth
Pew rentals—you had to buy your pew
Church was a sign of wealth
Movement says religion is for everyone
Ministers travel out to the rural areas to give religion
Introduced to slaves and Native Americans
Beginning of “black clergy”
Reverends in slave quarters have services
Don’t need a terrible amount of training
Revivalists start colleges of their own
Know that ministers need training and they won’t get it at the Old Light schools
Princeton, Brown, Rutgers, Dartmouth, Columbia (seminary)
U Penn is a secular university
Starts as the Philadelphia Philosophical Society
Started by Benjamin Franklin
Enlightenment school
The Enlightenment
Intellectual movement
Greater literacy rate in New England b/c of Protestant support of education
More people are dabbling in a new world of ideas and information
Human intelligence is in an age of progress and optimism
Enlightenment ideas
Confidence in human reason
Skepticism of things not proven by science
Newton explains things
Benjamin Franklin
Moved from Boston to Philadelphia just as city was taking off
Meets people who share his intellectual zeal
Forms the Junto= reading discussion group
Help him get printing contracts
Prints Poor Richerd’s Almanack
Collection of proverbs
Gets enough money to retire
Works in science and community
2 goals are related—scienceà people live more comfortably (electricity for example)
Enlightenment centers are in cities
Ideas circulate
People make little intellectual groups
Franklin makes American Philosophical Society in 1743
Becomes an inter-colonial network of amateur scientists
Kind of like Royal Society in London
Link between Britain and colonies
Enlightenment people think thought filters from top down
Don’t trust common people, especially in religion
John Lock writes Essay Concerning Human Understandin g
Talks about “rational” religion
When Bible conflicts with reason, chose reason
Ideas are acquired through reflection on one’s own experience
Argument for a God= orderliness of nature
Called Diests—God created the perfect universe so he doesn’t readily intervene but lets it go according to nature
Most enlightenment thinkers say they are Christian but aren’t really
Fear religion’s excesses that lead people to persecute b/c of religious enthusiasm
People act out of emotion rather than piety
Locke says one can only be certain of their own existence
People skeptic of zealots and sectarians
Franklin says religion is good for developing virtue but isnt interested in “theological hair splitting”
Enlightenment ideas play a large role in American revolution and formation of the United States Government
The Great Awakening
Many people’s lives are still hard
Diptheria epidemicà renewed religious fervor
Religious fervor would increase and then recede periodically
In 1739 there is a great outpouring of Protestatant revivalism
Called the “Great Awakening”
Embodies people’s enxiety about sin and longing for assurances of salvaiton
Charismatic preachers address these anxieties
Address the emotions of people in their sermons
Don’t talk so much about the intellectual side of theology
Revivalists
Show emptiness of material goods
Corruption of human hature
Fury of divine wrath
Johnathan Edwards leads a revival in Northampton, Massachusetts
Presbyterians William Tennet and Theodore Frelinghuysen also lead revivals
Most important revivalist is George Whitefield
Very good speaker—very persuasive
Inspires many to revive faith/join church
Divisions arise out of revivalist movement
New lights= revivalists
John Davenport and Gilbert Tennet
Say established clergy are “dead drones”
Tennet publishes “The Danger of an Unconverted Ministry”
They are criticizing foundations of social order
People don’t know who to trust
Old Lights
Establisehd clergy
Usually enlightenment thinkers
Saw New Lights as having the passion they were so worried about
Passion goes against rational thought
Say people mistake ravings and imagination for the experience of divine grace
Charles Chuancy= Boston’s leading congressionalists
Splits between old lights and new lights, esp. in Mass. And Connecticut
New lights imprisoned and face persecution
Have to keep paying tithes b/c old lights deny new light churches legal status
Connecticut makes laws to prevent New Lights from having marriages and expels many from legislature
New lights eventually win out
Effects of the Great Awakening (peaks in 1742/ 1755 in Virginia)
Decrease in power of Quakers, Anglicans, and Congressionalists
Thus, weakens idea of officially established denominations
Influence of Presbyterians and Baptists increases
New colleges built
New lights and old lights don’t want to study together
Make new colleges
Spread religious ideas beyond white society
Some Africans and native Americans like idea of piety over intellectual learningà incorporate some Christianity into their traditional culture
Beginnings of black Protestantism
New lights reach out to slaves
Some slaves even get to preach at revivalist meetings
Blacks and Indians are still persecuted though
Women get more religious prominence
Had long been used as examples of Christian piety
New Lights give them right to speak and vote in church meetings
Gain power like Anne Hutchinson did but don’t face persecution she did
Blurs denominational differences among Protestants
Whitefield= Anglican, but preaches with Presbyterians (Tennet and Davenport)
People emphasize need for salvation over tiny intricacies in practice
Emphasizes people’s common experiences and promotes coexistence of denominations
Great Awakening doesn’t inspire any revolution or political ideas
But does show people disagreeing with ideas of authority
Later evolves into revolution
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