Chapter 6

Book Questions:
What were the most critical factors enabling the Americans to win the War of Independence with Britain?
What changes did the Revolution promote in relationships among Americans of different classes, races, and genders?
In what ways did the first state constitutions and the Articles of Confederation reflect older pre-Revolutionary ideas about political power and authority? In What ways did they depart from older ideas?

The Prospects of War
Continental Army led by George Washington

Loyalists and Other British Sympathizers
Most colonists hoped that independence from British wouldn’t be necessary – opposition to rebellion
Enemies of Revolution = loyalists; Tories
Supporters of Revolution = Whigs
Loyalists
Opposed Parliament’s claim to taxing colonies
Disagreed with patriots’ insistence that only independence could preserve colonists’ constitutional rights
Denounced separation as an illegal act that will lead to unnecessary war
Retained profound reverence for crown
Each side saw their own cause as sacred that opposition was seen as betrayal
Important factors in determining loyalist strength
1) Degree to which local Whigs exerted political authority and successfully convinced neighbors that king and Parliament threatened liberty
New England town leaders, Virginia gentry, and rice planters of South Carolina pursued program of political education and popular mobilization
Explained issues at meetings
Elites persuaded majority to favor resistance
Loyalist population decreased
Communities remained divided when fighting began
2) Geographic distribution of recent British immigrants, who remained closely connected with homeland
After war, foreign-born loyalist population increased
Quebec Act of 1774 (after British conquered New France)
Guaranteed Canadians religious freedom and continued partial use of French civil law
Continental forces invaded Quebec – found widespread support among French and English Canadians
Canadians wanted American victory
North Americans supported British cause because they thought that independent American would pose greater threat to their own liberty and independence
British got support from British nonwhites
African Americans
Considered own liberation from slavery a higher priority
Some slaves escaped and joined Royal Army
Escaped to British protection
Most African-Americans in northern colonies believed supporting revolution would hasten own liberation
NAs
Most supported British
Recognized danger to homelands by expansion of Anglo-Americans
Six Nations Iroquois and Creek confederacies were divided (were unified until French defeat)
Creeks’ allegiances leaned toward colonists’ cause
Six Nations – unity died out à supported Britain

The Opposing Sides
Britain had two major advantages in war
1) 11 million inhabitants of British Isles outnumbered 2.5 million colonists, a fraction of whom were slaves or loyalists
2) Britain possessed world’s largest navy and one of best professional armies
Royal military establishment grew during war
Needed more manpower so hired others (Germans, loyalists, etc.)
Problems in Britain
Colonists were able to mobilize manpower as well
Americans served short terms
France and Spain helped in war’s later stages
Britain’s ability to crush rebellion was weakened by decline in navy – budget cuts
Many ships needed major repairs
Marine also suffered due to American raids
Hurt effort to supply British troops in America
Navy didn’t really accomplish much
British leaders faced problems maintaining people’s support
War added onto national debt – increased taxes
Problems in American colonies
Military challenge – lacked training to fight battles against professional armies
Could not rely entirely on guerrilla tactics
Avoided major battles
Allowed British to occupy all major population centers
Reliance on guerrilla tactics à evidence that Americans couldn’t fight British army à couldn’t get foreign loans, diplomatic recognition, and military allies
Continental Congress had to fight European style
Mass formations
Rapid maneuvers to crush undefended enemies
Close-range battle skill
Discipline, training, nerve
Britain had well-trained army with discipline and bravery under fire
Continental Army didn’t have much experience
Americans suffered succession of defeats
But only had to prolong rebellion until British taxpayers lost patience with struggle

George Washington
Spoke with authority and dignity
Powerfully built, athletic, hardened by outdoor life
His presence inspired troops to heroism
Took command of Virginia regiment raised to resist French claims
Discovered dangers of overconfidence and need for determination in face of defeat
Resigned commission and became tobacco planter
Sat in Virginia House of Burgesses – influence grew there because others respected him and sought his opinion
Sat in Continental Congress

War and Peace, 1776-1783
American forces won over British
Gain control of trans-Appalachian West
War was decided in South when American and French forces won victory at Yorktown, Virginia in 1781

Revolutionary War
Civil war and international war
Civil
3 divisions
Loyalists
Patriots
People who were undecided
Indifferent
Merit to both sides
Not informed
Opportunism- something to gain on both sides
Go with whoever will win
Some people don’t know, some people hugely dedicated to one side or another
40 + % patriots
20% loyalists
30-40% undecided
Why aren’t colonies losing
Home field advantage
Going against trained British army
Aren’t very good
Colonial organization doesn’t exist
Small continental army
People can go home whenever they want
Greater commitment on American side
British army- fighting to get home
Militias have more to lose than the British
Military strategy
British trying to tame a foreign insurgency
Britain having trouble maintaining lengthy struggle
After a certain point guerilla warfare doesn’t work
Important Battles
Battle of Sartoga
Gives revolutionaries control of the Hudson
French join on American side
Saratoga convinces them that they can win the war
See that America can win
Winable proposition
Hate British and want back land that Britain took from them
Lower Canada
French have recognized America as a real country
Spain joins in as an ally of France; Netherlands; try to get Russia too
Armed neutrality= not fighting but ready to come to the defense of an american, for example, if needed
Diplomats are getting sent to other countries to try and get allies
John Quincy Adams was secretary to the ambassador to Russia
After Saratoga, British public opinion is that America should be let go
Wilkes, Burkeà people had been advocating American independence for a while
Battle of Yorktown
Cornwallis surrenders
Both are surrenders of a major British force
When surrender, troops are taken prisoners or disarmed
Both were unexpected
American strategy got lucky
Washington wanted to change from fronteir fighting to European style battles
Convinced that guerilla war won’t work
At Saratoga, elements of European strategy come through and they win
Won by Horatio Gates
At Yorktown, European strategy + French allies give them a win
Americans win because British actually fighting don’t care
Only people who care are in cabinet
More people die on 9/11 than on the American side of the Revolution
George Washington answers to Continental Congress
Some people wanted to make him king
He resigns after 1783 to prevent this

Shifting Fortunes in the North, 1776-1778
Henry Knox brought artillery to Boston to help American effort there, led by George Washington à made British evacuate Boston and onto New York
Washington only had a couple thousand poorly-trained troops there while General William How and Admiral Richard Lord Howe led battalions of royal troops
Howe’s men defeated large portion of Washington’s troops and made survivors retreat to Pennsylvania
Washington led troops back into New Jersey and attacked stationed troops in Trenton – captured many, lost VERY few
Then attacked British at Princeton and killed/took captive a fraction of them – very few casualties
Princeton and Trenton consequences:
When defeat seemed inevitable, boosted civilian and military morale
Divided loyalists and British army
Forced British to remove all New Jersey garrisons to New York
Many loyalists swore allegiance to Continental Army
Marquis de Lafayette (French) joined Washington’s staff
Highly idealistic, brave, optimistic
His presence indicated that Louis XVI (king) might recognize American independence and declare war on Britain
Louis wanted proof that Americans could win
British planned two-pronged assault in New York to isolate New England
Force (including NAs) invaded New York from Montreal
General John Burgoyne simultaneously leads British force from Quebec through New York – was defeated at St. Leger
Recaptured Fort Ticonderoga
Ran short of supplies while General Horatio Gates (American) gathered troops for an attack à inflicted damage on Burgoyne
Battle at Saratoga à Burgoyne surrendered – surrounded
War’s turning point
Victory convinced France that Americans could win the war
France formally recognized U.S.
Went to war with Britain
Spain later declared war on Britain as ally of France, not of U.S.
Dutch Republic joined later as well
Britain had no allies
Howe landed troops near Philadelphia
American troops soon occupied the city
Burgoyne vs. Washington / Lafayette
Continental units crumbled under British
Congress fled Philadelphia – allowed Howe to occupy city
Howe defeated Washington
Continentals hid in Valley Forge – supplies running low
Army slowly regained strength but not training
Couldn’t mobilize quickly in organized units; couldn’t use bayonets efficiently enough
Continental Army got boost – German soldier Friedrich von Steuben arrived at Valley Forge
Talent for motivating men
Possessed administrative genius
Battle of Monmouth
General Henry Clinton (British commander-in-chief) evacuated Philadelphia and marched to New York
Continental Army caught up with Clinton in New Jersey
Clinton’s army slipped away
Ended contest for North
Clinton occupied New York – Royal Navy made safe from attack
Washington kept army nearby
Whig militia hunted down few Tory guerrillas and destroyed loyalism

The War in the West, 1776-1782
War fought west of the appalachian mountains has smaller intense battles
Long lasting hate between expansionist settlers and Native Americans
War is kind of a continuation of deep-seated tensions
Fighting begins when Cherokees attack whites in southern colonies
Colonies suffer heavy losses
Regain strengthà retaliate
Burn most cherokee towns
Treaties make w/ Cherokees
Cherokees have to give most of their land to North/South Carolina and Tennessee
In Northwest there is fighting
Indecisive battles between Ohio Indians and Americans
Battles
Colonel George Rogers Clark
Captures French community of Vincennes on Wabash river
British can’t offer assistance to Indian allies
John Bowman destroys most Shawnee villages
Danial Brodhead damages Delawares and Seneca Iroquois
Joseph Brant is pro-British Iroquois
Devastates Pennsylvania and NY fronteirs
John Sullivan retaliates
In one battle he kills a lot of Brant’s warriors
Burns 24 villages
Destroys a million bushels of corn
Many indians flee w/o food to canadaà starvation
Brant attacks New York
But, Sullivan’s campaign had inflicted too much damage
Harsh wintersà many die
Fighting in west continues until 1782

American Victory in the South, 1778-1781
Britain now has to fight an international war
Spain and France have joined
If colonies can hold out long enough, British supplies and manpower will snap
Spain forces Britain out of West Floridaà Britain can’t take Mississippi Valley
Britain has to send troops back home to protect from French invasion
Less to fight in America
Combined French and Spanish navies= size of British navy
Several large battles
Deny Britain control of sea
Break Royal Navy’s blockade
Britain plans to invade south
If have south ports, can move between West Indies and south easily
Want to tap into loyalist support in the south
Just push up one colony at a time after that
General Henry Clinton in charge of British troops in south
British take Georgia and Charles Town after 2 year delay
Find fewer loyalists
During Cherokee attacks, loyalists joined rebel militia to defend homes
Slaves had fleed to British troops or to British Florida
Plantation owners angry
Think rejection of their authority will lead to slave uprisings
Even though they try to return the slaves, Britain doesn’t get as much support
Remaining loyalists and patriots retaliate against each other
Horatio Gates takes control of American forces in south
Small force
Defeated at Camden, South Carolina by Lord Charles Cornwallis
Worst rebel defeat of the war
Gates replaced by Nathanail Greene
Fights 3 major battles against Cornwallis—loses all
But, gives Whig militia protection, sapps Cornwallis’ strength w/ more than anticipated losses, stretches British supply lines until some snap
Cornwallis forced to leave Carolina and move to Virginia
Clinton wants Cornwallis to come back to fight in south
Cornwallis has other plans—sets up base at Yorktown, Virginia
French drop anchor off Virginia coast
Lafayette and some Continentals join French
Washington moves men south from NYà trap Corwallis
British greatly outnumbered
3 weeks of fighting before Cornwallis surrenders

Peace at Last, 1718-1783
Treaty of Paris in 1783
Transfers of territory
Loyalists have lost property
Slaves have been liberated—set free, stay free
State governments had confiscated estates
If loyalists not compensated, British refuse to leave certain forts in west
French want lots of landà don’t get it
Didn’t show up for the negotiations
Angry that americans and british had been doing secret land negotiations
Independence recognized
Cornwallis’s surrender drained will of England’s people to fight – forced government for peace negotiations à Peace of Paris
Main diplomats: John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, John Jay
Agreements
Britain recognized African independence
Evacuated all royal troops from America
Gave Confederation lands east of Mississippi
America goes from St. Lawrence river to Florida
Procalmation of 1763 doesn’t apply anymore
Americans control Northwest (Clark’s victories)
Spain and Britain avoided Southwest
Gave American fishing rights off of Grand Banks of Canada
There were still unresolved issues (i.e. boundaries, etc.)
Future disputes
Between Britain and America – wouldn’t keep their word on some issues
Between British and Spain
NAs were left out of treaty – they fought too
Left them to deal with Confederation on their own
Didn’t respect American claims over their territory
No one for Native Americans to look to for protection
Displacement of Indian tribes
War à heavy death toll; drove many into exile; many fled
War didn’t settle two issues:
What kind of society American was to become
What sort of government the new nation would possess

The Revolution and Social Change
New Country
New neighbors—Spain in Florida, Britain in Canada
Huge amounts of land
Pay off loyalist compensation

Social tensions revealed during 1765-1775 were magnified by
Principles from Declaration of Independence
Dislocations caused by war
Many changes in race, gender, and class relationships

Egalitarianism Among White Males
Social relations between elites and common pepole change
Before, wealthy lived expensive lifestyles to flaunt their wealth
In 1760’s they start dressing like common people to win political approval by boycotting of British goods
Militiamen don’t wear wealthy officers uniformsà wear inexpensive ones that everyone can afford
Anti-British movement convinces people to appear equal to commonpeople
During war, people have to serve in the army together
Wealthy have to serve as privates under common people
Officers show respect to their soldiers
Don’t degrade them
Especially the wealthy in low positions wouldn’t do orders if ordered around negatively
Officers go out of their way to show troops that they feel they are equal
When soldiers return from war, they still expect this kind of equal treatment from the upper classà democratizing of America’s political assumptions
Common people move up in rank above wealthy
Based on merit, not wealth
Common people given responsibilities they wouldn’t have ordinarily had
Find that merit not connoected to wealth
Some people don’t like this equalitiy
Thought that each class had particular virtues
Lower class was supposed to defer to the educated and wealthy upper class to do what was necessary in government
Natural Aristocracy
Those who demonstrated fitness for government service by personal accomplishments
Some self-made people could make their way into the natural aristocracy
Wealthy still elected to office, but not if they flaunt their money
Distribution of wealth in the colonies still unchanged though

A Revolution for Black Americans
Fight for slaves liberty parallels America’s fight for independence
Free blacks
Can’t vote
Curfews
Lack guarantees of social justice
During war some slaves run off and pose as free blacks
Many join the army
w/ master’s concession
as free men
before there were bans on blacks in the military but they collaped in late 1770s
Army needed people
Not a reflection on their ideas of black equality
Slavery considered part of natural order
Opposition to slavery increases
Begins in yearly meeting of New England Quakers in 1770
Quakers begin freeing their slaves
Independence’s assertion of natural rightsà more people oppose slavery
New England begins to ban slavery
NH only one not to but slaves are freed by masters anyway
Take steps to weaken slavery over time
Children born after a certain date wouldn’t be slaves
May still have to work for master for years w/o pay
Decisive action not pressed in the south
w/o slaves they have no workforce
Confederation might go bankrupt
South would secede
In the South some people are also troubled by slavery
All states except South Carolina and Georgia end slave imports
All but North Carolina pass laws making it easier for slaves to be set free (called manumit)
Free blacks still face trouble
Most purchased their freedom w/ savingsà don’t have much money
Past physical prime
Hard to find work or equal pay
Remain poor laborers, domestic servants, and tenant farmers
Some gain recognition
Benjamin Banneker of Maryland
Phillis Wheatley
Most states grant more rights to free blacks during and after Revolution
If meet property qualificationsà can vote
Stop enforcing curfews and laws restricting freedom of movemetn
Guarantee free blacks equal treatment in court hearings (in law)

White Women in Wartime

Native Americans and the Revolution

Articles of Confederation
First drafted during Yorktown
Needed a body to act as government and sign the treaty of paris
Drafting not that different from Second Continental Congress
Instead of being called Continental Congress, it’s just the Congress
Before, there were many different governments together acting as one
Is that a nation or not?
Many different currencies
Concensus about political ideals
No united economic policy
Each colony can make a tarriff if they want
Congress is running things